State and Society up to 1000 CE Class 9 Notes SST Chapter 5

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Class 9 State and Society up to 1000 CE Notes

Class 9 SST Chapter 5 State and Society up to 1000 CE Notes

Evolution of Early Indian Society and the Vedic Age

From the second millennium BCE, literary sources begin supplementing archaeological evidence, with the Rig Veda being the earliest. This makes our understanding of this period much more detailed and qualitatively richer than earlier prehistoric periods.

These sources give insights into the social, political, cultural, and moral dimensions of the past — including ideas, ideologies, institutions, and practices.

The chapter traces how kin-based communities evolved into janapadas, mahajanapadas, and eventually empires like the Mauryas, Guptas, and Cholas.

Elements of continuity also persisted — such as the ideal of the pan-Indian monarch (expressed through the ashvamedha yajna and the concept of chakravarti samrat) and the enduring socio-ethical principle of dharma.

Key Concepts: Society vs. State
A society is a system of social relationships among people sharing a common territory, culture, and sense of belonging. It includes structural units like families, institutions like marriage, and customs. Society is primarily regulated by customs and practices, not formal laws.

A State is an organised political system based on rules and laws, with defined rights and duties of rulers and subjects, mechanisms of governance, and institutions for enforcing law and order.

Class 9 SST Chapter 5 Notes – State and Society up to 1000 CE Notes Class 9

These political systems did not appear suddenly — they developed gradually as societies grew larger and more complex over time.
Use of copper was known to the people of the Vedic.

The Vedic Period — Background
The Vedas are the earliest known corpus of Indian literature, since the Harappan script remains undeciphered, making Vedic texts our primary literary source for early India.

Vedic literature existed in oral form for several centuries before being written down, preserved carefully through memorisation and recitation.

The date of the Rig Veda is debated — estimates range from the fifth millennium BCE to the second millennium BCE. It was composed in the Sapta-Sindhu region (the Indus, its five tributaries, and the Sarasvati river).

Both the Rig Veda and the Sindhu-Sarasvati civilisation show familiarity with copper, suggesting a possible cultural connection between the two.

Vedic texts are studied to gain insights into social structures, political systems, economic pursuits, and religious practices of early India, and are regarded as foundational to Indian culture.

The Four Vedas
Rig Veda — The oldest Veda, containing 1,028 hymns (suktas) in praise of deities and reflecting on universal themes like creation, birth, and death.

Yajur Veda — Elaborates the performative aspects of yajnas and explains the hymns of the Rig Veda. Includes both verse and prose sections.

Sama Veda — Comprises hymns drawn from the Rig Veda, arranged for musical recitation. Its chanting tradition forms the foundation of the seven svaras (notes) at the heart of Indian classical music.

Atharva Veda — Contains hymns to ward off evil and others related to the treatment of physical and mental ailments.
Each Veda has four parts:

Samhita — Hymns used for invoking deities and offering oblations in yajnas.
Brahmana — Prose texts explaining ritual performances. Aranyaka — Philosophical speculations by sages living in forests (aranya = forest).
Upanishads — Deep philosophical inquiry into the nature of the Self (Atman) and the Ultimate Universal Being (Brahman).

Political Institutions in the Vedic Period
Early Vedic society was organised into janas (clans) — groups of people bound by kinship ties. The Rig Veda mentions about thirty janas, five of which — the Yadu, Turvasha, Puru, Anu, and Druhyu — were collectively known as the panchajana (‘five peoples’).

The name ‘Bharata’ first appears in the Rig Veda, referring to the Bharata jana — the people ruled by the family of the Bharatas. This shows how early communities identified themselves through their ruling families.-

The raja in this period functioned primarily as a clan chief — his main roles were leading the group in warfare and ensuring the protection of its members. His power was not absolute and was checked by assemblies.

The Three Vedic Assemblies
The Vedic texts — particularly the Rig Veda and Atharva Veda — refer to three important assemblies that played a role in governance:

Assembly	Nature & Function
Sabha	A smaller body composed of select elites, primarily serving a judicial function.
Samiti	A larger assembly focused on policy de­cisions and political affairs, represent­ing the broader population.
Vidhata	A popular assembly involved in social, religious, military and economic activi­ties. It appears to have been one of the earliest public gatherings mentioned in the Rig Veda.

The existence of these assemblies is significant — it suggests that even in early Vedic times, there was a principle of people’s participation in governance, somewhat similar to how modern parliaments check the powers of elected heads of government.

Flow of Political Development Kula (Family) → Grama (Village) → Jana (Tribe) → Janapada → Mahajanapada → Empires (e.g., Mauryan, Gupta, Chola)

Growth of Settlements in the Gangetic Region
First millennium BCE: More settlements in the Gangetic region than in the second millennium BCE.

1. Archaeological evidence shows:
2. Iron implements
3. Greater variety of grains
4. PGW (Painted Grey Ware) pottery

Second half of the first millennium BCE (Prayagraj to eastern Bihar):

1. Emergence of NBPW (Northern Black Polished Ware)
2. Refined deluxe pottery with a smooth, glossy black surface

NBPW phase indicates a richer and more advanced material culture.
Literary sources mention:

1. Expansion of agriculture
2. Increased grain production
3. Greater crop variety, especially paddy (rice)
4. Widespread use of iron implements.

Early Kingdoms, Republics and Administration in Ancient India

From Janapadas to Mahajanapadas
The term janapada literally means “where a people first set its feet,” marking a shift from kinship-based identity to territorial identity, occurring between approximately 1000 BCE and 600 BCE.

Control over land, agricultural production, and trade routes became increasingly important, leading to more complex administrative systems.

By around 600 BCE to 300 BCE, larger political units called mahajanapadas emerged. This transition can be seen as consolidation of identity for Vedic people.

Historical sources mention sixteen mahajanapadas, among which Magadha (present-day Bihar) gradually became the most powerful due to its strategic location, fertile plains, and strong rulers.

The expansion of Vedic culture from the north¬western regions into the Ganga plains during the later Vedic period brought significant socio-political changes, growth in agriculture, larger political units, and more complex social institutions.

The political landscape of northern India during this period included both monarchical states (rajyas) and republican states (ganas or samghas).

This expansion eventually led to the rise of the Mauryan Empire, one of the largest and most powerful empires in early Indian history.

Early Southern Kingdoms

1. Chera, Chola, Pandya were major southern kingdoms with royal emblems:
2. Tiger – Cholas
3. Bow-Cheras
4. Fish – Pandyas
5. Knowledge comes mainly from Sangam literature (c. 300 BCE-300 CE).
6. Rulers were called three crowned kings (Vendar of Tamilakam), ruling fertile rice-growing regions.
7. Sangam texts mention powerful kings, including a Chera ruler titled Adhiraja.
8. References include Vedic yajnas and links with epic traditions.
9. These are early kingdoms, not to be confused with later imperial Chola, Chera, and Pandya empires.

Political Formations in Southern India
In the Deccan, the Mauryan Empire was succeeded by the Satavahana Empire, which lasted nearly 500 years from the 2nd century BCE to the 3rd century CE.

Further south, major polities included the Cholas (lower Kaveri River valley), Pandyas (Tamraparni and Vaigai river valleys), Keralaputras/Cheras (Kerala), and Satiyaputras (northern Tamil Nadu).

All these southern polities are also mentioned in Ashokan inscriptions, confirming their existence and significance.

Duties and Ideals of the King
From the 6th century BCE, rulers carried titles such > as raja, maharaja, or samrat, reflecting regional political
traditions.

Kautilya’s Arthashastra emphasised that a king must be personally energetic and active for his officers to fqllow suit.

The Yajur Veda advises the king through his coronation oath to judge the strong and weak impartially, protect the country from calamities, and do good to the people.

The Shanti Parva of the Mahabharata provides guidance on ethical conduct, justice, and a king’s responsibilities towards his subjects.

The king was primarily responsible for protecting subjects from external threats and internal disorder, and for administering justice in cases of abduction, robbery, theft, and adultery.

Punishments for serious offences such as killing a cow, treachery, or consuming intoxicating liquor were severe, sometimes including capital punishment.

While kingship was generally hereditary, there are references to kings being elected or even expelled, showing that royal authority was not always absolute.

Pan-Indian Political Awareness
Early Indian monarchs had a geopolitical awareness that extended beyond their own kingdoms to the entire Indian subcontinent, expressed through terms like Jambudvipa, Bharatavarsha, Prithivi, and chakravarti kshetra.

The Arthashastra defines Prithivi as “the area lying between the Himalayas and the sea” and equates it with the chakravarti kshetra, the domain of a universal paramount ruler.

Ashoka referred to changes across Jambudvipa through his energetic exertions; the Chera king Nedunjeral Adan extended his conquests to the Himalayas; and the Chola ruler Rajendra I adopted the title Gangaikonda to commemorate his northern conquests.

This shows that the aspiration to exercise authority over the entire subcontinent was a recurring ideal throughout Indian political history.

The Saptamga — Seven Constituents of the State
Kautilya identified seven constituents (Saptamga) that together formed the state as an organic whole:

1. The King (swami)
2. The Ministers and officials (amatya)
3. The Territory and population (janapada)
4. The Fortified towns and cities (durga)
5. The Treasury (kosha) o The Army (danda)
6. The Allies (mitra)

The state could function effectively only if all seven constituents remained properly integrated.

Council of Ministers
The king did not rule alone but governed through a multi-layered administrative system, central to which was the mantri-parishad (council of ministers) a small body of elder statesmen who advised and supported the king.

The council generally included the treasurer, chief tax collector, chief legal advisor, and commander-in-chief of the army.

An Ashokan inscription records that the council could take decisions independently in public interest during the emperor’s absence, showing it had real authority.

Junagadh Rock Inscription

1. Located near Girnar, Gujarat, it is a unique inscription site.
2. It contains records of three rulers from different periods:

Ashoka (3rd century BCE, Mauryan Empire)

1. Rock edicts in Prakrit
2. Spread Dhamma and moral teachings

Rudradaman I (c. 150 CE, Western Satraps)

1. Sanskrit inscription
2. Records military achievements and repair of Sudarshana Lake

Skandagupta (5th century CE, Gupta Empire)

1. Records restoration of Sudarshana Lake after damage
2. The site spans about 700 years of history.
3. It provides valuable insights into administration, public works, and political history of ancient India.

How Empires Were Administered

Early Indian kingdoms were divided into provinces → divisions → districts → villages, with the village being the smallest and most self-reliant administrative unit.

The Satavahana Empire used aharas (administrative divisions) with amatyas (ministers), below which were villages led by a gramika (village headman).

District officers known as pradeshikas performed judicial and administrative functions and were responsible for maintaining law and order and implementing royal policies.

Between 300-800 CE, power became increasingly decentralised provinces were called bhuktis in the north and maiidalas/mahdalams in the south; districts were called adhishthana / pattana (North) and nadu (South); village groups were called vithis in the north and pattala/kurram in the south.

Village groups → villages (lowest unit)
System managed by provincial governors and district officers.

Administration under the Guptas

The Gupta administration retained many features of earlier Indian administrative traditions, some of which resemble the administrative principles described in Kautilya’s Arthashastra. The king was assisted by ministers and other senior officials in governing the empire.

A new office — the sandhivigrahika (minister of peace and war) — was introduced during the Gupta period.

The amatyas of Kautilya’s time evolved into kumaramatyas — administrators at the local or provincial level.

The Damodarpur Copper Plates reveal that Gupta district administration included not only government officials but also bankers, traders, and artisans, showing that local governance involved both administrators and representatives of economic life.

Administration under the Pallavas and Chalukyas
The Pallavas (c. 275-897 CE) combined centralised monarchy with decentralised local governance the kingdom was divided into provinces, districts, taluks, and villages.

A notable Pallava feature was Brahmadeya villages tax-free land grants to villages where village assemblies managed local affairs through small committees called variyams (handling irrigation, gardens, temple management).

The Chalukyas (c. 543-753 CE) of Badami followed a similar pattern but gave land grants to Brahmin settlements called agraharams instead. Some agraharams, such as those at Aihole and Badami, became prominent centres of learning.

The Gurjara-Pratiharas, Palas, and Rashtrakutas
The Gurjara-Pratiharas ruled northern and western India from the 8th to 10th centuries CE, with Kannauj as their main capital a coveted centre that led to the famous tripartite struggle involving the Gurjara-Pratiharas, Palas, and Rashtrakutas.

All three kingdoms followed the same administrative pattern a mix of monarchy with decentralised provinces, districts, and villages.

In all cases, the village remained the smallest and largely autonomous administrative unit, self-reliant in infrastructure, social welfare, and education.

The Imperial Cholas and Their Administration
The Imperial Cholas (9th-llth century CE) were noted for their highly efficient administrative and revenue systems.
The empire was divided into mancialams (provinces) → valanadus (districts) → nadus (groups of villages) → urs (individual villages).

Village councils and assemblies played a key role in settling disputes and managing local affairs including revenue collection, land management, irrigation, road construction, and record maintenance.

Chola village assemblies functioned as independent, self-reliant institutions, not dependent on the central government for patronage, making them a remarkable feature of Indian local governance.

Uttaramerur Inscription & Chola Village Governance
The Uttaramerur inscription (10th century CE) of Parantaka I (Chola period), located in the Vaikuntha Perumal temple at Uttaramerur, Kanchipuram district, describes village administration in detail.

It explains the functioning of village assemblies and the kudavolai (ballot pot) system of elections.

In this system, names of eligible candidates were written on palm leaves, placed in a pot during a public gathering, and a young child drew lots to select representatives, ensuring fair and transparent elections held in public view, often in temples.

Elected members were assigned to specialised committees (variyams) responsible for irrigation (tank management), justice, and tax collection.

Social Structures, Economy and Culture in Early India

Ethics: The Foundation of Law and Life
Some of the earliest Indian texts the Vedas and the epics discuss questions of reality, right conduct, the origin of all things, and the nature of the universe. The Bhagavad Gita emphasises knowledge, faith, action, virtue, and an ethical way of life.

Samatva (principle of sameness) is an important ethical concept; it holds that all bodies are made of the same matter and all forms of consciousness are manifestations of one supreme consciousness. The Vedas describe this consciousness as satya (real/true) and rita (right).

Rita is described in the Rig Veda as an all-pervading cosmic order representing harmony and balance in nature and human society it regulates the forces of nature and upholds moral values.

Dharma does not mean religion it refers to duty, obligation, righteousness, and moral conduct. It represents a way of life where ethical values are central and individuals perform duties according to their roles. In Buddhism, the equivalent term is dhamma (Pali).

The word ‘dharma’ is derived from the Sanskrit root dhr (same root as dharati, the earth). In the Mahabharata, Bhishma says, ”dharma is “that which upholds beings.”

The connection between politics and ethics is evident across periods from Ashoka’s edicts (emphasising moral conduct, non-violence, compassion, and respect within family) to the Uttaramerur inscription (10th century CE), which specified that candidates for village assembly elections must have “honest earnings” and be “pure” of mind.

Literary works like Kamandaka’s Nitisara and Banabhatta’s Kadambari (celebrated as one of the world’s first novels) contain reflections and advice on kingship and governance, reinforcing the enduring connection between ethics and political authority.

Varna and Jati
Early Vedic texts do not indicate fixed social status strictly based on birth; social identity was shaped by ethnicity, subgroups, geography, village affiliation, gotra, language, and especially occupation. Occupations were flexible and mobile in the early period.

The earliest reference to the four social categories (varnas) appears in the Purushasukta, a hymn in Book 10 of the Rig Veda.
Over time, the four varnas came to be associated with specific roles:

1. Brahmanas — study and teach Vedas, perform yajnas, give and receive dana.
2. Kshatriyas (Rajanya) — warfare, protecting people, administering justice, upholding social order, o Vaishyas — agriculture, pastoralism, trade, charitable acts.
3. Shudras — assist other varnas; also practically engaged in agriculture, animal husbandry, trade, and arts and crafts.

The varna system placed knowledge at the highest status, followed by political power and wealth — it was fundamentally a functional division, not a purely birth- based one.

The Buddhist text Sutta Nipata states: “No brahmana is such by birth. No outcaste is such by birth but only by his deeds.”

Over time, a distinct social structure called jati emerged due to intermarriage among varnas, migrating communities becoming endogamous, and territorial differences. While varnas were fixed at four, there was no restriction on the number of jatis, which continued to grow as new occupations and groups developed.

Varna, Jati & Social Mobility
Varna and Jati were not rigid, allowing social and occupational mobility.

Several rulers came from diverse backgrounds: Nandas, Mauryas, Shungas, Satavahanas, Vakatakas, Guptas, Pushyabhutis.

Occupational mobility evidence:

Mandsaur inscription (473 CE): Silk weavers migrated from Lata (Gujarat) to Dashapura (Madhya Pradesh); skilled in weaving, archery, astrology, etc.

Karitalai copper plate (late 5th century CE): Brahmanas acted as land managers.

Sangam literature (Tolkappiyam): Mentions fourfold social division (Arasar, Vanigar, Velar, Antanar), but based largely on occupation and not rigid hierarchy.

Pattinappalai describes a dynamic trade society with interacting groups: merchants, salt makers, fishermen, artisans, agriculturists, warriors.

Overall, society was functionally organised by occupation and economy rather than strict Varna rules.

Family and Society
In Vedic society, the kula (family) was the smallest and most basic social unit, connected to the larger political structure through the grama (village), which consisted of several families.

A group of gramas formed a visha, headed by a vishapati. Above the visha was the jana, with the raja as its chief protector.

During the later Vedic period, kula came to denote a household of several members bound by kinship. The concept of gotra referred to a patrilineal lineage traced to a common ancestor (a Vedic sage/rishi) and played an important role in regulating marriage practices.

The Four Ashramas and Purusharthas
Everyone was expected to perform duties appropriate to their varna and stage of life (ashrama). The four ashramas provided fulfilment in social, moral, and spiritual aspects:

1. Brahmacharya (student life)
2. Grhastha (householder)
3. Vanaprastha (forest dweller/retired)
4. Samnyasa (renunciant)

All stages of life were marked by the shodasha samskaras (sixteen rites of passage) — from birth, initiation into education, completion of studies, engagement, marriage, birth and marriage of children, death rites for parents, to one’s own death.

The four purusharthas (goals of life) were: dharma (righteousness), artha (material well-being), kama (fulfilment of desires), and moksha (liberation). Dharma and moksha hold special ethical significance, and the pursuit of artha must always be guided by dharma.

Reriunciants — An Important Trend
Around the middle of the first millennium BCE, a trend of renunciants emerged — individuals who advocated non-attachment to material comforts and social relationships, living as ascetics and wanderers.

They were referred to as parivrajaka (wanderer), bhikshu (one who lives by begging alms), or shramana (one who strives).

Gautama Buddha and Mahavira were the most influential thinkers of this period, though the idea of renunciation was already present in the Vedic tradition through the ashramas of vanaprastha and samnyasa.

Role of Women
The Vedic period is described as one where women held a high and respectful position — they participated in scholarly learning, performed rituals alongside men, took part in chariot races, and attended the sabha.

Several hymns of the Rig Veda are traditionally attributed to women sages — notably Apala, Vishvavara, Ghosha, and Lopamudra. Goddesses like Usha (goddess of dawn) and Aditi (mother of the gods) were revered in Vedic culture.

The Manu-smriti states: “Where women are honoured, there gods rejoice; where they are not honoured, all sacred rites prove fruitless.”

Over time, the position of women fluctuated and sometimes declined. However, women continued to contribute to household management, agriculture, crafts, and religious practices.

Literary works of the Gupta-VSkataka period (4th- 6th century CE) depict female characters as highly educated and skilled in arts. Prabhavati Gupta, daughter of Chandragupta II, ruled as regent in the VSkataka kingdom and issued land grants in her own name.

Sangam literature portrays women as active participants in economy and society — performing agrarian tasks (planting, weeding, husking, winnowing), cattle rearing, spinning, fishing, salt production, and garland selling. Famous women in Sangam literature include poetesses Avvaiyar and Vennikuyattiyar.

During the Chola period, royal women like Sembiyan Mahadevi supported temple building and religious institutions.

Religious Life and the Emergence of Bhakti
The Vedic pantheon had no rigid hierarchy — different deities were praised as supreme in different hymns. Deities were invoked through prayers and yajnas (sacrificial rituals with offerings to sacred fire).

Each Vedic deity was associated with an element of nature (sun, rain, fire, earth, dawn), reflecting early societies’ dependence on and reverence for nature. Some ancient practices continue today — e.g., Chhath and Makar Sankranti.

Over time, the Vedic tradition evolved towards worship of personal deities like Vishnu, Shiva, and Shakti, laying the foundation for later devotional practices.

Bhakti offered a direct, personal connection with gods without elaborate Vedic rituals, accessible to all, regardless of class or gender. Early references to Bhakti appear in the Mahabharata.

The organised Bhakti tradition gained prominence in the 6th century CE Tamil region through the Alvars (twelve saint-poets who composed hymns praising Lord Vishnu) and Nayanmars (sixty-three Shaiva saint-poets who composed hymns praising Lord Shiva). Together they created a large body of Tamil Bhakti literature.

Education and the Quest for Knowledge
In early India, education served a holistic purpose cultivating truth, patience, humility, control of senses, purity of self, reverence for all beings, and awareness of the unity of life, nature, and environment.

Students studied the Vedas, grammar, logic, philosophy, ethics, mathematics, science, medicine, and astronomy, along with arts and crafts including music, dance, painting, physical education, and archery. They also practised yoga, meditation, and service to the guru.

The guru-shishya parampara (teacher-student tradition) was sacred — the guru (acharya) was deeply respected as a guide leading students from ignorance to knowledge. The gurukula system placed the teacher’s home at the centre of learning, with students treated as family members.

Important centres of higher learning emerged across the subcontinent — Takshashila being a notable example with well-organised urban systems, housing, drainage, and waste management. Nalanda University was established in 427 CE and VallabhT University in 480 CE.

Literary Heritage of Early India
Sanskrit literature: Kalidasa’s Raghuvamsha and Kumarasambhava; foundational grammar texts Panini’s Ashtadhyayi, Pirigala’s Chhandasslmstra, Patahjali’s Mahabhashya; Smriti literature — Manu-smriti, Yajhavalkya Smriti, Narada Smriti, Vishnu Smrti; medical classics — Charakasamhita and Sushrutasamhitd.

Tamil literature: TiruvaHuvar’s Tirukkural; Tamil epics Silappadikaram and Mahimekalai; the vast body of Sangam texts covering love (akam), war and public life (puram), political organisation, social structures, and economic activities.

Economy — Agriculture and Land Revenue
The Mauryan state developed an elaborate system to regulate economic activities. Agricultural land was divided into individual holdings, while common resources like pastures were maintained for grazing cattle.

The state encouraged agricultural expansion by clearing forests, though certain forests were protected by law. The basic land tax was one-sixth of produce.

Land was classified into various categories by Kautilya — cultivated land, wasteland/fallow land, high and dry land, sown fields, and groves.

Crops cultivated included rice, pulses, wheat, linseed, , mustard, saffron, sugarcane, vegetables, and fruits.

Post-Mauryan period: Agriculture remained the backbone of the economy. The Buddhist text Milindapahho describes eight stages of agricultural operations from preparing and weeding fields to harvesting and winnowing.

Deccan’s black soil contributed to increased cotton cultivation during this period. The Amarakosha (Sanskrit lexicon) includes a special chapter on forests, crops, plants, and manure.

Sangam literature describes the Chera region as rich in jackfruit, pepper, and turmeric, and mentions cultivation of ragi and sugarcane.

Irrigation
Agriculture was closely dependent on irrigation considerable importance was placed on construction and maintenance of reservoirs, canals, and dams.

Thejunagadh inscription of Rudradaman I records that Pushyagupta, a governor appointed by Chandragupta Maurya, constructed a dam on Sudarshana Lake near Girnar in Saurashtra (Gujarat) highlighting the Mauryan state’s active role in developing irrigation infrastructure.

The Cholas built an advanced irrigation system of canals, lakes, tanks, and channels that supported agriculture and settlement growth; the Grand Anicut (Kallanai) built by Karikala Chola is a key example, which was maintained by later rulers and remains in use even today, showing the long-lasting importance of Chola irrigation works.

Trade Routes and Ports
The Arthashastra identifies trade as a major economic activity — Magadha traded textiles, gems, coral, pearls, metals, and minerals. Salt was an important commodity strictly regulated by the state.

By around the 6th century BCE, two major land routes had emerged — Dakshinapatha (southern route) and Uttarapatha (northern route) — later maintained and expanded by successive dynasties. These connected inland regions with coastal ports and integrated overland and maritime trade.

Important ports that developed over time include Muziris, Kaveripattinam, Arikamedu, and Masulipatnam.

By the early centuries CE, India’s trade with Rome had expanded significantly through sea routes and overland connections via Central Asia.

Guilds (Shrenis)
Guilds were collective organisations of traders, artisans, and merchants engaged in the same profession. They played a significant role in expanding trade especially after the rise of mahajanapadas (6th century BCE).

Metallic coins beginning with silver punch-marked coins came into circulation during this period, facilitating t trade.

The Jataka literature refers to eighteen types of guilds, indicating they were well-established institutions. Guilds regulated the quality of goods and fixed prices to protect both artisans and consumers.

Member conduct was supervised through guild courts that enforced professional standards and discipline. Guilds also functioned as banks, financiers, and trustees.

The Nashik cave inscription (2nd century CE) of the Shaka king Nahapana and his son-in-law Ushavadata records that monetary donations were deposited with guilds, which paid a fixed rate of interest. The interest was used to maintain Buddhist monasteries and caves — confirming that guilds functioned as full banking and credit institutions.

Post-Gupta period: Industries continued to expand. Major textile hubs emerged at Mathura, Kashi, and

Kamarupa, producing silk, cotton, wool, and linen using diverse weaving techniques. References to guilds of silk weavers confirm the organised nature of the textile industry.

An inscription at Sanchi Stupa mentions the Vidisha ivory workers’ guild, which contributed to welfare and carved sculptures, showing the role of craft guilds in art and religious patronage.