Teachers recommend using Class 9 SST Notes and NCERT Class 9 SST Chapter 4 Early Humans and Beginning of Civilisation Notes for quick revision before tests.
Class 9 Early Humans and Beginning of Civilisation Notes
Class 9 SST Chapter 4 Early Humans and Beginning of Civilisation Notes
From Prehistoric Times to the Mesolithic Age
1. Prehistory and Cultural Development
Prehistory = period before written records; studied via archaeology (tools, fossils, cave paintings).
- Human cultural history begins —2 million years ago.
- Homo erectus (—1.9 mya) mastered fire (—1.5 mya) and migrated out of Africa.
- Homo sapiens (—3,00,000 ya) — modern humans; complex language, art and social organisation.
2. Periodisation — Archaeological Ages
| Age | Time Period | Tools | Key Features |
| Palaeolithic | 2.6 mya – 10,000 BCE | Chipped stone | Nomadic hunters; fire; cave art (Bhimbetka) |
| Mesolithic | 10,000 – 8,000 BCE | Microliths | Transition; semi-permanent settlements; early herding |
| Neolithic | 8,000 – 4,000 BCE | Polished stone | Farming; pottery; permanent villages |
| Chalcolithic (brief) | 4,000 – 2,500 BCE | Copper + stone | Early metal use; small towns; transitional economy |
3. Human Ancestors
Early human ancestors evolved over millions of years, gradually developing larger brains, upright posture and more complex tools.
Homo habilis (literally meaning “handy man”) (—2.4-1.4 mya) — first known tool-maker; made basic stone tools; lived in Africa.
Homo erectus (1.9 mya-70,000 ya) — upright walker; first to use fire (—1.5 mya); spread to Asia and Europe.
Homo sapiens (3,00,000 ya-present) — modern humans; full language and abstract thinking.
4. Palaeolithic Age: Hunter-Gatherers & Stone Tools
Nomadic bands of 20-50; caves/rock shelters; seasonal migration.
Tools: Chipped stone tools hand-axes, choppers and scrapers. Quality improved over time. (Specific industry names removed as per feedback.)
Fire: —1.5 mya by Homo erectus — warmth, cooking, protection.
India: Bhimbetka (M.E) — UNESCO World Heritage Site; famous for rock shelter cave paintings spanning from the Palaeolithic to the Historic period.
Attirampakkam (T.N.) — One of India’s oldest prehistoric sites, yielding Acheulean stone tools dating back to 1.5 my a.
Class 9 SST Chapter 4 Notes – Early Humans and Beginning of Civilisation Notes Class 9
5. Mesolithic Age—Transition and Tools
- Climate shift post-ice Age (—10,000 BCE): forests expanded; new animals emerged.
- Microliths: tiny) -sharp blades hafted on wood/bone, composite arrows, harpoons.
- Semi-permanent settlements near rivers. Early herding of dogs and goats.
- Indian sites: Bagor (Rajasthan) — largest Mesolithic site; Adamgarh (M.E); Langhnaj (Gujarat).
6. Life Before Writing
Before writing (—3500 BCE), all knowledge was transmitted orally — through storytelling, songs, rituals and tradition.
History of this period is reconstructed through material remains: stone tools, bones, cave paintings and pottery studied through archaeology.
Hunter-gatherers and early Neolithic farmers lived without written language yet developed complex social structures, trade and belief systems.
Cave paintings at Bhimbetka and burial practices with ornaments give clues about prehistoric beliefs and social life.
7. From Hunter-Gatherers to Civilisation—A Chronological Journey
Stage 1 — Palaeolithic (—2.6 mya-10,000 BCE): Fully nomadic hunter-gatherers; rough chipped stone tools; cave art; entirely dependent on nature.
Stage 2 — Mesolithic (—10,000-8,000 BCE): Microliths replace heavy tools; semi-permanent settlements near rivers; early animal herding begins.
Stage 3 — Neolithic (—8,000M,000 BCE): Deliberate farming; plant/animal domestication; permanent villages; pottery; food surplus; craft specialisation.
Stage 4 — Chalcolithic (—4,000-2,500 BCE): Copper tools introduced; early towns; regulated trade; growing social hierarchy.
Stage 5 — River Valley Civilisations (—3500-1500 BCE): Writing systems; full urban planning; organised religion; states with rulers.
The Neolithic Revolution & The Dawn of Agriculture
1. The Neolithic Age—’New Stone Age’
Period: —8,000-4,000 BCE. Defining feature: POLISHED stone tools.
Key marker: Beginning of farming — a fundamental change in human life.
Important global site: Jericho (Palestine, —9000 BCE) — one of the world’s oldest permanent towns.
Important Indian sites: Mehrgarh (Balochistan, —7000 BCE), Burzahom (Kashmir), Chirand (Bihar), Piklihal (Karnataka).
2. The Neolithic Revolution
Coined by V. Gordon Childe (1936) in ’Man Makes Himself.
Refers to: transition from hunter-gathering (food collection) to settled agriculture (food production).
First occurred in the ‘Fertile Crescent’ (Tigris-Euphrates valley, modern Iraq/Syria) —10,000 BCE.
Independent origins: South Asia (Mehrgarh — wheat, cotton), China (Yangtze — rice), Americas (maize, potato).
An agricultural surplus led to population growth, which enabled a division of labour, fostered trade networks, and ultimately established towns and civilisations.
3. Beginning of Farming and Domestication
Earliest Indian crops: Wheat, barley, millets (Mehrgarh, -5000 BCE).
Domestication selective breeding of wild species over generations.
The sequence of domestication began with the dog (—15,000 BCE), followed by goats and sheep (—10,000 BCE), then cattle and pigs (—8,000 BCE), and finally the ‘ horse (—4,500 BCE).
India: Cotton at Mehrgarh (—5000 BCE); cattle at Adamgarh; dog buried with humans at Burzahom (Kashmir).
4. Diversity of Food Habits Across Ages
Hunter-Gatherer Food (Palaeolithic and Mesolithic):
Entirely dependent on wild sources — hunted game, caught fish, gathered berries, roots, tubers, honey. Seasonal and unpredictable; people moved to follow food.
Neolithic Farmer Food: Cultivated grains (wheat, barley, millets, rice) formed the base diet. Domesticated animals provided milk, meat and eggs. Surplus grain stored in pottery. Diet became more varied, predictable and reliable.
Civilisation-Era Food (Harappan, Mesopotamian, Egyptian): Complex diets based on agricultural surplus. Harappans ate wheat, barley, fish, meat and traded cotton. Mesopotamians consumed barley bread, beer, fish and dates. Egyptians depended on Nile-grown wheat and barley, supplemented by fish, onions and lentils.
5. Factors of Urban Development
Agricultural Surplus: Farming produced more food than immediately needed, freeing people for other activities.
Division of Labour: Surplus allowed craft specialisation — potters, weavers, carpenters, traders and priests emerged.
Trade Networks: Exchange of goods created wealth and connected settlements, encouraging the growth of trading centres.
Geographic Advantage: River valleys provided fertile silt, fresh water for irrigation, fish and natural transport routes — encouraging permanent settlement.
Centralised Authority: A governing body coordinated irrigation, defence, grain storage and taxation.
Writing and Record-Keeping: Administrative needs of towns led to the invention of writing — cuneiform, hieroglyphics and the Indus script.
6. Settled Life, Crafts, Trade and Social Changes
Permanent villages replaced nomadic camps; division of labour: farmers, potters, weavers, carpenters, traders.
Trade: Surplus goods traded — obsidian from Anatolia, shells from coasts, lapis lazuli from Afghanistan.
Social stratification: Surplus created wealth differences; elites, priests and rulers emerged.
Early River Valley Civilisations
1. Sindhu-Sarasvati Civilisation
Period: —3000-1500 BCE. Location: Indus River valley (modern Pakistan + NW India).
Major sites: Harappa, Mohenjodaro, Dholavira, Lothal, Kalibangan, Rakhigarhi.
Urban planning: Grid-plan streets, standardised bricks (1:2:4 ratio), covered drainage system, Great Bath.
Economy: Wheat/barley farming, cotton, pottery, metalwork, beads; long-distance trade with Mesopotamia.
Religion: Mother Goddess figurines, Pashupati Seal (proto-Shiva), tree/ animal worship.
Writing: Indus’ script (—400 signs) — undeciphered; found on seals and pottery.
Decline: —1900 BCE — ecological change, floods, trade decline; causes debated.
Social Structure (by inference): No royal palace or king’s tomb found. Scholars infer:
- a merchant or priestly elite likely governed;
- the Great Bath and granaries suggest civic, community-focused governance;
- standardised weights indicate strong administrative authority;
- relatively uniform house sizes suggest a less extreme social hierarchy compared to Mesopotamia and Egypt.
2. Mesopotamian Civilisation
Location: Tigris and Euphrates (modern Iraq). Period: —3500-500 BCE. City-states: Ur, Uruk, Lagash, Babylon.
Sumerians (—3500-2350 BCE): Cuneiform (—3500 BCE) — world’s first writing. Wheel (—3500 BCE). Base-60 math, Hammurabi’s Code (—1754 BCE): 282 laws — ‘an eye for an eye’ principle; public justice codified.
Religion: Polytheistic — Anu, Enlil, Inanna and Marduk. Ziggurats — stepped temple towers; priests managed the economy.
The social structure was strictly hierarchical: the king j (lugal) sat at the top, followed by nobles and priests, then scribes, craftsmen, and traders, with farmers and slaves making up the base.
3. Egyptian Civilisation
Location: Nile River valley (NE Africa). Period: —3100-30 BCE. Unified -3100 BCE by Narmer.
Pharaoh: Absolute divine ruler — living god, son of Ra/Horus. Centralised monarchy.
Religion: Polytheistic — Ra, Osiris, Isis, Horus. Afterlife belief —> mummification, Book of the Dead.
Writing: Hieroglyphs (—3200 BCE) — deciphered using the Rosetta Stone, discovered in 1799, with the script successfully deciphered by Jean-Frangois Champollion in 1822.
Monuments: Pyramids (Giza), Sphinx, Karnak/Luxor temples.
The social structure was strictly hierarchical: the Pharaoh sat at the top, followed by nobles and priests, then scribes,, craftsmen, and traders, with farmers and slaves making up the base.
4. Chinese Civilisation
Location: Primarily the Yellow River (Huang He) valley; later extended to the Yangtze valley. First historical dynasty: Shang (c. 1600-1046 BCE).
Key contributions: Oracle bone script (—1250 BCE) — earliest Chinese writing; silk (sericulture); bronze metallurgy.
Chinese civilisation developed contemporaneously with Harappa and Mesopotamia — demonstrating parallel human development globally. (Detail reduced as per feedback.)
5. Comparing Sindhu-Sarasvati with Mesopotamian and Egyptian Civilisations
The three civilisations flourished contemporaneously (—3500-1500 BCE). A comparison reveals both shared features and key differences:
| Feature | Sindhu-Sarasvati | Mesopotamian | Egyptian |
| Urban Planning | Most advanced: grid streets, covered drainage, standardised bricks | City-states; ziggurats; palace complexes | Monumental temples; pyramids; Nile-linked cities |
| Governance | No visible king/palace — inferred merchant-priestly elite; civic focus | Kings (Lugal); divinely chosen; city-states | Pharaoh — absolute divine god-king |
| Writing | Indus script — UNDECIPHERED | Cuneiform — deciphered; world’s oldest | Hieroglyphics — decoded via Rosetta Stone |
| Religion | Mother Goddess, Pashupati, nature worship | Polytheistic; patron gods per city; ziggurats | Afterlife central; mummification; divine Pharaoh |
| Trade Links | Seals found in Mesopotamia — direct maritime trade confirmed | Grain & wool for copper, timber; river routes | Nile trade with Nubia, Levant; gold, papyrus |
QUICK SUMMARY TABLE — Four Civilisations
| Feature | Sindhu-Sarasvati | Mesopotamian | Egyptian | Chinese (Shang onward) |
| River | Indus | Tigris-Euphrates | Nile | Huang He/Yangtze |
| Period | 3000-1500 BCE | 3500-500 BCE | 3100-30 BCE | 1600-221 BCE |
| Writing | Indus (undeciphered) | Cuneiform | Hieroglyphics | Oracle bone |
| Key
Features |
Urban planning | Wheel, Law Codes | Pyramids,
Mummification |
Silk, Bronze |
| Religion | Mother Goddess | Ziggurats | Afterlife | Ancestor worship |