Uniform Motion and Non Uniform Motion | Definition, Examples – Motion in a Straight Line

Uniform Motion and Non Uniform Motion Definition, Examples – Motion in a Straight Line

Uniform Motion and Non- Uniform Motion | Definition, Examples – Motion in a Straight Line

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Uniform Motion Definition:
If an object is moving along the straight line covers equal distance in equal interval of time, it is said to be in uniform motion along a straight line.

Uniform Motion and Non Uniform Motion

Uniform Motion Example:

  • A car moves at a constant speed on a straight path. At certain points travel time and traveled distance are measured and recorded.
  • A vibrating spring in a sewing machine.

Non-Uniform Motion Definition:
This type of motion is defined as the motion of an object in which the object travels with varied speed and it does not cover same distance in equal time intervals, irrespective of the time interval duration.

Non Uniform Motion

Non-Uniform Motion Example:

  • Movement of an asteroid
  • Dragging a box from a path

Motion in a Straight Line Topics:

Motion in Physics Rest and Motion
Frames of Reference Distance and Displacement
Measurement of Speed Velocity
Acceleration Uniform Motion and Non-Uniform Motion
Graphs of Motion Uniformly Accelerated Motion
Motion Under Gravity

Adhesive Force in Physics | Meaning, Example – Surface Tension

Adhesive Force in Physics

Adhesive Force Meaning:
The force of attraction acting between the molecules of different substances is called adhesive force.

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Adhesive Force in Physics | Meaning, Example – Surface Tension

Adhesive Force Example:
The force of attraction acting between the molecules of paper and ink, water and glass etc.

  • Glass-Water
  • Pen-Book
  • Paint-Wall
  • Marker-WhiteBoard

Surface Tension:
In Physics, the tension of the surface film of a liquid because of the attraction of the surface particles by the bulk of the liquid, which tries to minimize surface area is called surface tension. When the surface of the liquid is strong enough, then surface tension is applicable. It is strong enough to hold weight.

Surface Tension Adhesive Force
Cohesive Force Molecular Range
Factors Affecting Surface Tension Surface Energy
Angle of Contact Capillarity
Jurin’s Law

Degrees of Freedom in Physics | Definition, Formula – Kinetic Theory of Gases

Degrees of Freedom in Physics Definition, Formula – Kinetic Theory of Gases

Degrees of Freedom in Physics Definition:
The degree of freedom for a dynamic system is the number of directions in which a particle can move freely or the total number of coordinates required to describe completely the position and configuration of the system.
It is denoted by f or N.

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Degrees of Freedom in Physics | Definition, Formula – Kinetic Theory of Gases

Degrees of Freedom Formula Physics:
Suppose if we have A number of gas molecules in the container, then the total number of degrees of freedom is f = 3A. But, if the system has R number of constraints (restrictions in motion) then the degrees of freedom decreases and it is equal to f = 3A-R where A is the number of particles.
Degree of freedom of a system is given by

f or N = 3A – R

where,
A = number of particles in the system and
R = number of independent relations between the particles.

Degree of freedom for different atomic particles are given below.

  1. For monoatomic gas = 3 (all translational).
  2. For diatomic gas = 5 (3 translational, 2 rotational)
  3. For non-linear triatomic gas = 6 (3 translational, 3 rotational)
  4. For linear triatomic gas = 7 (3 translational,3 rotational and 1 vibrational)

Specific heat of a gas

(a) At constant volume, Cv = \(\frac{f}{2}\)R.
(b) At constant pressure, Cp = \(\left(\frac{f}{2}+1\right)\)R
(c) Ratio of specific heats of a gas at constant pressure and at constant volume is given by γ = 1 + \(\frac{2}{f}\)

Specific heat of solids, C = 3R ⇒ C = 24.93 Jmol-1 K-1.
Specific heat of water, C = 9R ⇒ C = 74.97 Jmol-1 K-1.
Degrees of Freedom

Maxwell’s Law or the Distribution of Molecular Speeds
It derives an equation giving the distribution of molecules at different speeds

dN = 4πN\(\left(\frac{m}{2 \pi k T}\right)^{3 / 2} v^{2} e^{-\left(\frac{m v^{2}}{2 k T}\right)} \cdot d v\)

where, dN is number of molecules with speed between v and v + dv.
The \(\frac{d N}{d v}\) versus v curve is shown below
Degrees of Freedom

Law of Equipartition of Energy

This law states that, for a dynamic system in thermal equilibrium, the total energy is distributed equally amongst all the degree of freedom and the energy associated with each molecule per degree of freedom is

\(\frac{1}{2}\) kB T.

where,
kB = 1.38 x 10-23 JK-1 is Boltzmann constant and
T is the absolute temperature of system on the kelvin scale.

Kinetic Theory of Gases:
In this concept, it is assumed that the molecules of gas are very minute with respect to their distances from each other. The molecules in gases are in constant, random motion and frequently collide with each other and with the walls of any container.

In this portion, you will learn about the properties of gases, based on density, pressure, temperature and energy. Continue reading here to learn more.

Kinetic Energy of an Ideal Gas Assumptions of Kinetic Theory of Gases
Gas Laws Ideal Gas Equation
Real Gases Degrees of Freedom
Mean Free Path Brownian Motion
Critical Temperature

Capillarity in Physics | Definition, Formula, Examples – Surface Tension

Capillarity in Physics Definition, Formula, Examples – Surface Tension

Capillarity Definition Physics:
The phenomenon of rise or fall of liquid column in a capillary tube is called capillarity.

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Capillarity in Physics | Definition, Formula, Examples – Surface Tension

Ascent of a liquid column in a capillary tube is given by

h = \(\frac{2 S \cos \theta}{r \rho g}-\frac{r}{3}\)

Capillarity Formula Derivation:
If capillary is very narrow, then

h = \(\frac{2 S \cos \theta}{r \rho g}\)

where,
r = radius of capillary tube,
ρ = density of the liquid,
θ = angle of contact and
S = surface tension of liquid.

  • If θ < 90°, cos θ is positive, so h is positive, i.e. liquid rises in a capillary tube.
  • If θ > 90°, cos θ is negative, so h is negative, i.e. liquid falls in a capillary tube.
  • Rise of liquid in a capillary tube does not violate law of conservation of energy.

Capillarity Examples in Daily Life:
(i) The kerosene oil in a lantern and the melted wax in a candle, rise in the capillaries formed in the cotton wick and burns.

(ii) Coffee powder is easily soluble in water because water immediately wets the fine granules of coffee by the action of capillarity.

(iii) The water given to the fields rises in the innumerable capillaries formed in the stems of plants and trees and reaches the leaves.

(iv) The tip of nib of a pen is split to provide capillary action for the ink to rise.

(v) The action of a towel in soaking up moisture from the body is due to the capillary action of cotton in the towel.

Surface Tension:
In Physics, the tension of the surface film of a liquid because of the attraction of the surface particles by the bulk of the liquid, which tries to minimize surface area is called surface tension. When the surface of the liquid is strong enough, then surface tension is applicable. It is strong enough to hold weight.

Surface Tension Adhesive Force
Cohesive Force Molecular Range
Factors Affecting Surface Tension Surface Energy
Angle of Contact Capillarity
Jurin’s Law

Pressure Exerted by the Liquid – Hydrostatics

Pressure Exerted by the Liquid – Hydrostatics

Pressure Exerted by the Liquid:
The normal force exerted by a liquid per unit area of the surface in contact is called pressure of liquid or hydrostatic pressure.

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Pressure Exerted by the Liquid – Hydrostatics

Pressure exerted by a liquid column, p = hρg
where,
h = height of liquid column,
ρ = density of liquid
g = acceleration due to gravity.
Mean pressure on the walls of a vessel containing liquid upto height h is \(\left(\frac{h ρ g}{2}\right)\).

Variation of Pressure with Depth:
Consider a fluid at rest having density ρ (roh) contained in a cylindrical vessel as shown in figure. Let the two points A and B separated by a vertical distance h.
Pressure Exerted by Liquid

The pressure p at depth below the surface of a liquid open is given by
Pressure, p = pa + hpg
where,
ρ = density of liquid and
g = acceleration due to gravity.

Atmospheric Pressure:
The pressure exerted by the atmosphere on earth is called atmospheric pressure.

  • It is equivalent to a weight of 10 tones on 1 m².
  • At sea level, atmospheric pressure is equal to 76 cm of mercury column.

Then, atmospheric pressure

= hdg = 76 x 13.6 x 980 dyne/cm²
= 0.76 x 13.6 x 103 x 9.8 N/m²

Thus, 1 atm = 1.013 x 105 Nm-2 (or Pa)

The atmospheric pressure does not crush our body because the pressure of the blood flowing through our circulatory system is balanced by this pressure.

Atmospheric pressure is also measured in torr and bar.

1 torr = 1 mm of mercury column
1 bar = 105 Pa

  • Aneroid barometer is used to measure atmospheric pressure.
  • Pressure measuring devices are open tube manometer, tyre pressure gauge, sphygmomanometer etc.

Gauge Pressure:
Gauge pressure at a point in a fluid is the difference of total pressure at that point and atmospheric pressure.

Gauge Pressure

Hydrostatic Paradox:
The liquid pressure at a point is independent of the quantity of liquid but depends upon the depth of point below the liquid surface. This is known as hydrostatic paradox.

Hydrostatic Paradox

Important Points Related with Fluid Pressure

Important points related with fluid pressure are given below
(i) At a point in the liquid column, the pressure applied on it is same in all directions.

(ii) In a liquid, pressure will be same at all points at the same level.

(iii) The pressure exerted by a liquid depends only on the height of fluid column and is independent of the shape of the containing vessel.
Pressure Exerted by Liquid
If hA = hB = hC, then pA = pB = pC

(iv) Consider following shapes of vessels
Pressure Exerted by Liquid
Pressure at the base of each vessel
Px = Py = Pz = P0 + ρgh but wx ≠ wy ≠ wz
where,
ρ = density of liquid in each vessel,
h = height of liquid in each vessel and
p0 = atmospheric pressure.

(v) In the figure, a block of mass ‘m’ floats over a fluid surface
Pressure Exerted by Liquid
If ρ = density of the liquid
A = area of the block
Pressure at the base of the vessel in p = p0 + ρgh + \(\frac{m g}{A}\)

Hydrostatics:
Hydrostatics is a property of liquid or fluid in mechanics. A fluid is a material which flows at room temperature, because its upper molecule overlaps the inner molecule, which tends to flow the liquid in forward direction. In hydrostatics, we will learn about the condition of fluids when it is in rest or exerted by an external force. Here we will study the fluids in motion.

Properties of Fluids Thrust
Pressure Pressure Exerted by Liquid
Buoyant Force Pascal’s Law
Archimedes’ Principle Law of Floatation
Density Relative Density
Density of a Mixture

Velocity in Physics | Definition, Types, Formulas, Units – Motion in a Straight Line

Velocity in Physics Definition, Types, Formulas, Units – Motion in a Straight Line

Velocity Definition Physics
The time rate of change of displacement of an object in a particular direction is called its velocity.
Velocity Formula in Physics

\(Velocity =\frac{\text { Displacement }}{\text { Time taken }}\)

  • Its SI unit is m/s.
  • Its dimensional formula is [M°LT-1].
  • It is a vector quantity, as it has both, the magnitude and direction.
  • The velocity of an object can be positive, zero or negative.

Velocity | Definition, Type, Formulas, Units – Motion in a Straight Line

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Types of Velocity in Physics

Uniform Velocity Definition:
If an object undergoes equal displacements in equal intervals of time, then it is said to be moving with a uniform velocity.

Uniform Velocity Definition

Non-uniform Definition or Variable Velocity:
If an object undergoes unequal displacements in equal intervals of time, then it is said to be moving with a non-uniform or variable velocity.

Non-uniform Definition or Variable Velocity

Average Velocity Definition:
The ratio of the total displacement to the total time taken is called average velocity.
Average Velocity Formula Physics

\(Average velocity =\frac{\text { Total displacement }}{\text { Total time taken }}\)

Instantaneous Velocity Definition:
The velocity of a particle at any instant of time is known as instantaneous velocity.
Instantaneous Velocity Formula

\(\text { Instantaneous velocity }=\lim _{\Delta t \rightarrow 0} \frac{\Delta x}{\Delta t}=\frac{d x}{d t}\)

Relative Velocity Definition:
Relative velocity of one object with respect to another object is the time rate of change of relative position of one object with respect to another object.

Relative velocity of object A with respect to object B
VAB =VA – VB
If it is in one dimensional motion, we can treat vectors as scalars just by assigning the positive sign to one direction and negative to others.

when two objects are moving in the same direction, then
VAB = VA – VB
or
VAB = VA – VB
Velocity

When two objects are moving in opposite direction, then
VAB = VA + VB
or
VAB = VA + VB
Velocity

When two objects are moving at an angle θ, then
Velocity

\(v_{A B}=\sqrt{v_{A}^{2}+v_{B}^{2}-2 v_{A} v_{B} \cos \theta}\)
and
\(\tan \beta=\frac{v_{B} \sin \theta}{v_{A}-v_{B} \cos \theta}\)

Motion in a Straight Line Topics:

Motion in Physics Rest and Motion
Frames of Reference Distance and Displacement
Measurement of Speed Velocity
Acceleration Uniform Motion and Non-Uniform Motion
Graphs of Motion Uniformly Accelerated Motion
Motion Under Gravity

Rigid Body in Physics | Definition, Example, Types – Rotational Motion

Rigid Body in Physics Definition, Example, Types – Rotational Motion

Rigid Body Definition:
A body is said to be a rigid body, when it has perfectly definite shape and size. The distance between all points of particles of such a body do not change, while applying any force on it.

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Rigid Body in Physics | Definition, Example, Types – Rotational Motion

The general motion of a rigid body consists of both

  • Translational Motion
  • Rotational motion

Rigid Body in Physics

Translational Motion in Physics:
Translational Motion of a rigid body performs a pure translational motion, if each particle of the body undergoes the same displacement in the same direction in a given interval of time.

Translational Motion in Physics

Rotational Motion Physics:
Rotational Motion of a rigid body performs a pure rotational motion, if each particle of the body moves in a circle, and the centre of all the circles lie on a straight line called the axes of rotation.

Equations of Rotational Motion:
(i) ω = ω0 + αt
(ii) θ = ω0t + \(\frac{1}{2}\)αt²
(iii) ω² = ω²0 + 2αθ

Rigid Body Example in Physics:
A ball bearing made of hardened steel is a good example of a rigid body. Now, drop a ball bearing on a polished marble floor — it’ll bounce just about as well as a Superball. Why’s that? Because, though it is a rigid body, it has near-perfect elasticity.

Rotational Motion:
In this portion, we will learn about the rotational motion of the objects. A body moves completely in rotational motion when each particle of the body moves in a circle about a single line. When a force is applied on a body about an axis it causes a rotational motion. The force applied here is called the torque. The axis of the rotation usually goes through the body. Also, learn the two theorems such as parallel axes and perpendicular theorem explained with respect to rotational motion of objects.

Centre of Mass Linear Momentum of a System of Particles
Rigid Body Moment of Inertia
Radius of Gyration Parallel Axis Theorem
Perpendicular Axis Theorem Moment of Inertia of Rigid Body
Torque Angular Momentum
Centre of Gravity Angular Impulse
Rotational Kinetic Energy

Motion in a Plane | Definition, Formulas, Types – Motion in a Plane (Projectile and Circular Motion)

Motion in a Plane Definition, Formulas, Types – Motion in a Plane (Projectile and Circular Motion)

Motion in a Plane Physics:
Motion in plane is called as motion in two dimensions, e.g. projectile motion, circular motion. For the analysis of such motion our reference will be made of an origin and two co-ordinate axes X and Y.

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Motion in a Plane | Definition, Formulas, Types – Motion in a Plane (Projectile and Circular Motion)

Terms Related to Motion in Plane
Few terms related to motion in plane are given below

1. Position Vector Definition:
A vector that extends from a reference point to the point at which particle is located is called position vector.
Motion in a Plane

Position vector is given by r = \(\hat{x} \hat{\mathbf{i}}+y \hat{\mathbf{j}}\)
Direction of this position vector r is given by the angle θ with X-axis,
where, tan θ = \(\frac{y}{x}\)
In three dimensions, the position vector is represented as
\(\mathbf{r}=x \hat{\mathbf{i}}+y \hat{\mathbf{j}}+z \hat{\mathbf{k}}\)

Position Vector Definition

2. Displacement Vector Definition:
The displacement vector is a vector which gives the position of a point with reference to a point other than the origin of the co-ordinate system.
Motion in a Plane

Magnitude of displacement vector
\(\begin{aligned}
|\Delta \mathbf{r}| &=\sqrt{(\Delta x)^{2}+(\Delta y)^{2}} \\
&=\sqrt{\left(x_{2}-x_{1}\right)^{2}+\left(y_{2}-y_{1}\right)^{2}}
\end{aligned}\)

Direction of the displacement vector Ar is given by
tan θ = \(\frac{\Delta y}{\Delta x}\)

In three dimensions, the displacement can be represented as
\(\Delta \mathbf{r}=\left(x_{2}-x_{1}\right) \hat{\mathbf{i}}+\left(y_{2}-y_{1}\right) \hat{\mathbf{j}}+\left(z_{2}-z_{1}\right) \hat{\mathbf{k}}\)

Displacement Vector Definition

3. Velocity Vector Definition:
Velocity of an object in motion is defined as the ratio of displacement and the corresponding time interval taken by the object.
(i) Average Velocity Definition:
It is defined as the ratio of the displacement and the corresponding time interval.
Motion in a Plane

Average velocity, \(v_{\mathrm{av}}=\frac{\Delta r}{\Delta t}=\frac{r_{2}-r_{1}}{t_{2}-t_{1}}\)
Average velocity can be expressed in the component forms as
\(v_{\mathrm{av}}=\frac{\Delta x}{\Delta t} \hat{\mathbf{i}}+\frac{\Delta y}{\Delta t} \hat{\mathbf{j}}=\Delta v_{x} \hat{\mathbf{i}}+\Delta v_{y} \hat{\mathbf{j}}\)

The magnitude of uav is given by
tan θ = \(\frac{\Delta v_{y}}{\Delta v_{x}}\)

(ii) Instantaneous Velocity Definition:
The velocity at an instant of time (t) is known as instantaneous velocity.
Instantaneous velocity,
Motion in a Plane
Magnitude of instantaneous velocity
\(|v|=\sqrt{v_{x}^{2}+v_{y}^{2}}\)
Direction of v is given by
tan θ = \(\left(\frac{v_{y}}{v_{x}}\right)\)

4. Acceleration Vector:
It is defined as the rate of change of velocity.
(i) Average Acceleration Definition:
It is defined as the change in velocity (Δv) divided by the corresponding time interval (Δt).
Motion in a Plane
Average acceleration,
Motion in a Plane
Magnitude of average acceleration is given by
\(\left|a_{\mathrm{av}}\right|=\sqrt{\left(a_{(\mathrm{av})} x\right)^{2}+\left(a_{(\mathrm{av})} y^{2}\right)^{2}}\)
Angle θ made by average acceleration with X-axis is
tan θ = \(\frac{a_{y}}{a_{x}}\)

(ii) Instantaneous Acceleration Definition:
It is defined as the limiting value of the average acceleration as the time interval approaches to zero.
Instantaneous acceleration,
a = \(\lim _{\Delta t \rightarrow 0} \frac{d v}{d t}\)
a = \(a_{x} \hat{\mathbf{i}}+a_{y} \hat{\mathbf{j}}\)
If acceleration a makes an angle θ with X-axis
then,
tan θ = \(\left(\frac{a_{y}}{a_{x}}\right)\)

Motion in Plane with Uniform Acceleration
A body is said to be moving with uniform acceleration, if its velocity vector suffers the same change in the same interval of time however small.
According to definition of average acceleration, we have
\(a=\frac{v-v_{0}}{t-0}=\frac{v-v_{0}}{t}\)
v = v0 + at
In terms of rectangular component, we can express it as
vx = v0x + axt
and
vy = v0y + ayt

Path of Particle Under Constant Acceleration
Now, we can also find the position vector (r). Let r0 and r be the position vectors of the particle at time t = 0 and t = t and their velocities at these instants be v0 and v respectively. Then, the average velocity is given by
\(\mathbf{v}_{\mathrm{av}}=\frac{\mathbf{v}_{0}+\mathbf{v}}{2}\)
Displacement is the product of average velocity and time interval. It is expressed as
Motion in a Plane
In terms of rectangular components, we have
\(x \hat{\mathbf{i}}+y \hat{\mathbf{j}}=x_{0} \hat{\mathbf{i}}+y \hat{\mathbf{j}}+\left(v_{0 x} \hat{\mathbf{i}}+v_{0, j} \hat{\mathbf{j}}\right) t+\frac{1}{2}\left(a_{x} \hat{\mathbf{i}}+a_{y} \hat{\mathbf{j}}\right) t^{2}\)

Now, equating the coefficients of \(\hat{\mathbf{i}} \text { and } \hat{\mathbf{j}},\)
x = x0 + v0xt + \(\frac{1}{2}\)axt² ……………. along x-axis
and
y = y0 + v0yt + \(\frac{1}{2}\)ayt² ……………. along y-axis

Note: Motion in a plane (two-dimensional motion) can be treated as two separate simultaneous one-dimensional motions with constant acceleration along two perpendicular directions.

Motion in a Plane (Projectile and Circular Motion):
In this chapter or under this topic, we are going to come across the motion of the object when it is thrown from one end to another end. This practice is said to be projection. Also, when an object is moved in a circular motion, then the equation of the motion is derived here. We will learn here about centripetal force and centripetal acceleration in detail with formulas. Also learn the force applied in everyday life motion of the particle in a vertical circle.

Motion in a Plane Projectile Motion
Circular Motion Centripetal Acceleration
Centripetal and Centrifugal Force Examples of Centripetal Force in Everyday Life
Motion in Vertical Circle

Surface Energy | Definition, Formula, Units – Surface Tension

Surface Energy Definition, Formula, Units – Surface Tension

Surface Energy Definition:
If we increase the free surface area of a liquid, then work has to be done against the force of surface tension. This work done is stored in liquid surface as potential energy.

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Surface Energy | Definition, Formula, Units – Surface Tension

This additional potential energy per unit area of free surface of liquid is called surface energy.

Surface Energy Formula:

Surface Energy = \(\frac{\text { Energy }}{\text { Area }}\)

Surface Energy (E) = S x ΔA
where, S = surface tension and ΔA = increase in surface area.

Unit of Surface Energy:
SI Unit of Surface Energy is N/m

Surface Energy Dimensional Formula:
Dimensional Formula is M1L2T-2

(i) Work Done in Blowing a Liquid Drop:
If a liquid drop is blown up from a radius r1 to r2, then work done for that is

W = S . 4π(r2² – r1²)

(ii) Work Done in Blowing a Soap Bubble:
As a soap bubble has two free surfaces, hence work done in blowing a soap bubble so as to increase its radius from r1 to r2 is given by

W = S . 8π(r2² – r1²)

(iii) Work Done in Splitting a Bigger Drop into n Smaller Droplets:
If a liquid drop of radius R is split up into n smaller droplets, all of same size, then radius of each droplet

r = R . (n)-1/3
Work done, W = 4πS(nr² – R²) = 4πSR² (n1/3 – 1)

(iv) coalescence of Liquid Drops:
If n small liquid drops of radius r each combine together so as to form a single bigger drop of radius R = n1/3 . r, then in the process energy is released. Release of energy is given by

ΔU = S . 4π(nr² – R²) = 4πSr²n (1 – n-1/3)

Excess Pressure due to Surface Tension
(i) Excess pressure inside a liquid drop = \(\frac{2 S}{R}\)
(ii) Excess pressure inside an air bubble in a liquid = \(\frac{2 S}{R}\)
(iii) Excess pressure inside a soap bubble = \(\frac{4 S}{R}\)
where, S = surface tension and R = radius of drop/bubble.

Excess Pressure in Different Cases

Surface Energy

Surface Energy
1. Work done in spraying a liquid drop of radius R into n droplets of radius r = S x Increase in surface area

= 4πSR3\(\left(\frac{1}{r}-\frac{1}{R}\right)\)

Fall in temperature,

Δθ = \(\frac{3 S}{J}\left(\frac{1}{r}-\frac{1}{R}\right)\)

where, J = 4.2 J/cal.

2. When n small drops are combined into a bigger drop, then work done is given by

W = 4πR²S (n1/3 – 1)

Temperature increase,

Δθ = \(\frac{3 S}{J}\left(\frac{1}{r}-\frac{1}{R}\right)\)

3. When two bubbles of radii r1, and r2 coalesce into a bubble of radius r isothermally, then

r² = r1² + r2²

4. When two soap bubbles of radii r1 and r2 are in contact with each other, then radius r of common interface
Surface Energy

\(\frac{1}{r}=\frac{1}{r_{1}}-\frac{1}{r_{2}}\) or r = \(\frac{r_{1} r_{2}}{r_{2}-r_{1}}\)

Formation of a Single Bubble

1. If two bubbles of radius r1 and r2 coalesce isothermally to form a single bubble of radius r under external pressure p0, then surface tension of the liquid

S = \(\frac{p_{0}\left[r^{3}-r_{1}^{3}-r_{2}^{3}\right]}{4\left[r_{1}^{2}+r_{2}^{2}-r^{2}\right]}\)

2. Pressure inside bubbles are

p1 = \(\left(p_{0}+\frac{4 S}{r_{1}}\right)\), p2 = \(\left(p_{0}+\frac{4 S}{r_{2}}\right)\), p3 = \(\left(p_{0}+\frac{4 S}{r}\right)\)

Also, p1V1 + p2V2 = p3V3

where,
p1, V1 are pressure and volume of first bubble,
p2, V2 are pressure and volume of second bubble and
p3, V3 are pressure and volume of new bubble.

Surface Tension:
In Physics, the tension of the surface film of a liquid because of the attraction of the surface particles by the bulk of the liquid, which tries to minimize surface area is called surface tension. When the surface of the liquid is strong enough, then surface tension is applicable. It is strong enough to hold weight.

Surface Tension Adhesive Force
Cohesive Force Molecular Range
Factors Affecting Surface Tension Surface Energy
Angle of Contact Capillarity
Jurin’s Law

Types of Vectors and Their Definitions in Physics – Scalars and Vectors

Types of Vectors and Their Definitions in Physics – Scalars and Vectors

Types of Vectors
(i) Equal Vectors:
Two vectors of equal magnitude and having same direction are called equal vectors.
Types of Vectors

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Types of Vectors and Their Definitions

Types of Vectors and Their Definitions in Physics – Scalars and Vectors

(ii) Negative Vectors:
Two vectors of equal magnitude but having opposite directions are called negative vectors.
The negative vector of A is represented as -A.
Types of Vectors

Types of Vectors and Their Definitions in Physics

(iii) Zero Vector or Null Vector:
A vector whose magnitude is zero, known as a zero or null vector. Its direction is not defined. It is denoted by 0.

Velocity of a stationary object, acceleration of an object moving with uniform velocity and resultant of two equal and opposite vectors are the examples of null vector.

(iv) Unit Vector:
A vector having unit magnitude is called a unit vector.
A unit vector in the direction of vector A is given by
\(\hat{\mathbf{A}}=\frac{\mathbf{A}}{A}\)
A unit vector is unitless and dimensionless vector and represents direction only.

(v) Orthogonal Unit Vectors:
The unit vectors along the direction of orthogonal axis, i.e. X-axis, Y-axis and X-axis are called orthogonal unit vectors. They are represented by \(\hat{\mathbf{i}}, \hat{\mathbf{j}} \text { and } \hat{\mathbf{k}}\)
Types of Vectors

(vi) Co-initial Vectors Vectors:
having a common initial point, are called co-initial vectors.
Types of Vectors

(vii) Collinear Vectors:
Vectors having equal or unequal magnitudes but acting along the same or parallel lines are called collinear vectors.
Types of Vectors

(viii) Coplanar Vectors:
Vectors acting in the same plane are called coplanar vectors.

(ix) Localised Vector:
A vector whose initial point is fixed, is called a localised vector.

(x) Non-localised or Free Vector:
A vector whose initial point is not fixed is called a non-localised or a free vector.

(xi) Position Vector:
A vector which gives position of an object with reference to the origin of a coordinate system is called position vector. It is represented by a symbol r.
Types of Vectors

(xii) Displacement Vector: The vector which tells how much and in which direction an object has changed its position in a given interval of time is called displacement vector.

Displacement vector is the straight line joining the initial and final positions and does not depend on the actual path undertaken by the object between the two positions.
Types of Vectors
The displacement vector for AB is
Δr = r2 – r1

Scalars and Vectors Topics:

Scalars and Vectors Tensors
Types of Vectors Addition of Vectors
Rotation of Vectors Direction Cosines of a Vector
Subtraction of Vectors Multiplication of Vectors
Scalar Product of Two Vectors Vector Product of Two Vectors
Division of Vectors