Laxmi

The compilation of these History Notes makes students exam preparation simpler and organised.

The Making of the National Movement: 1870-1947

First, it was the Mughals, then it was the British and today it is the Corrupt system. What has happened to India? This is surely not the India Gandhi had dreamt of. So what did India from Gandhi’s dream look like? What were the events that made Hindustan, India/Bharat? Why was there a need for a ‘National Movement’? Let us rewind back in time and fetch answers to these questions and more!

• The Making of the National Movement

The compilation of these The Making of Regional Cultures Notes makes students exam preparation simpler and organised.

Regional Cultures

Each region can be associated with a distinctive kind of food, clothing, poetry, dance, music as well as art which is collectively termed as its culture. We tend to identify people living in a particular region on the basis of these. However, sometimes this can be far from the truth because the culture of a region evolves because of intermixing of local traditions with ideas from different parts of the subcontinent. Let us know more about the regional cultures of the Indian subcontinent.

Malayalam – The Language of Cheras

The 9th century witnessed the establishment of the Chera kingdom of Mahodayapuram in the southwestern part of the peninsula, presently known as Kerala. It is reported that Malayalam was used as the spoken language there. It was introduced by the rulers not only in their language but also in inscriptions. This example illustrates the relationship between language and region, and also of the use of a regional language in official records in the subcontinent.

The Sanskrit Connect

Sanskritic traditions have a deep impact on the Cheras. The temple theatre of Kerala drew inspiration from the Sanskrit epics. Many literary works in Malayalam either draw their inspiration from or are a direct transliteration of epics in Sanskrit. Lilatilakam, a 14th-century text about grammar and poetics were composed in Manipravalam. It literally translates to ‘diamonds and corals’, which refers to the two languages – Sanskrit and the regional language.

The Cult of Jagannatha

Sometimes regional cultures develop around religious traditions. An example of this is the cult of Jagannatha. Jagannatha is the name of Lord Vishnu which literally translates to ‘the lord of the world’. This cult is found in Puri, Orissa. The local tribals carry out a practice where they carve a wooden image of the deity, suggestings the local origin of God which is later identified as Lord Vishnu. This tradition is still widely practiced.

Puri – The Pilgrimage Centre

A temple of Purushottama Jagannatha was constructed at Puri by Anantavarman of the Ganga dynasty, one of the important rulers of the Ganga dynasty, in the 12th century. Subsequently, King Anangabhima III, the self-proclaimed deputy of the Lord dedicated his entire kingdom to the deity in 1230.

The importance of the temple as a pilgrimage centre grew and with it increased its authority in social as well as political spheres. There was a competition amongst the dynasties who conquered Orissa to gain control over the temple. Amongst these were the Mughals, Marathas as well as the English East India Company. They regarded gaining control over the temple as a means to garner the acceptance of the local people.

Heroism of Rajputs

The present-day Rajasthan was initially known as “Rajputana” by the British in the 19th century since it was inhabited by the Rajputs. Many groups in the northern, as well as central parts of India, identified themselves as Rajputs. Apart from these, there were people living in Rajasthan who were not Rajputs. The Rajputs, however, are often recognized as contributing to the distinctive culture of Rajasthan is indebted to the Rajputs for its distinctive and rich cultural heritage.

The Rajputs were known to be heroic rulers and their aspirations and ideals have a strong influence on the cultural traditions of this region. From the advent of the 8th century, Rajasthan was ruled by various Rajput families. Prithviraj was one of the most popular rulers.

Ideals of Rajputs and Rajputana Culture
Fighting till their last breath, these rulers would rather choose death over surrender to the enemy. Such were the strong ideals of the Rajputs. The gallantries of the Rajputs were well documented in the form of stories as well as poems and songs. Depicting strong emotions such as loyalty and anger, these stories inspired even ordinary people.

The Rajput Women
Women have often been depicted as the cause of conflict between kings who fought battles in order to win them over. The horrifying practice of ” Sati” was common in those times where widows were immolated on the funeral pyre of their husbands

Example:

Question:
Who constructed the temple of Purushottama Jagannatha?
a. Anantavarman
b. Prithviraj
c. Anangabhima III
d. None of these
Answer:
The correct answer is option a. Anantavarman constructed the temple of Purushottama Jagannatha.

The compilation of these The Making of Regional Cultures Notes makes students exam preparation simpler and organised.

Paintings for Patrons: The Tradition of Miniatures

India is known for its rich cultural heritage. While studying a particular region or culture, it is important to observe it through the lenses of music, cuisine, art, dance, and its particular style of attire since each region has a unique sense of style. Speaking of art, have you ever heard about miniature paintings? Let us know more about them and how these helped in preserving the rich culture of India.

Miniature Paintings – The Tiny Pieces of Beauty

Miniature paintings were another tradition that developed in different ways. The word “miniature” means small in size. Thus, essentially these were small-sized paintings that were done on cloth or paper with the help of watercolors. Before the advent of paper, the earliest miniatures were done on palm leaves or wood.

These beautiful paintings were predominantly found in the regions of Western India and the Himalayan foothill around the present-day state of Himachal Pradesh. By the latter half of the 17th century, this particular region had developed its own peculiar style characterized by the bold and intense style of paintings known as Basohli. Bhanudatta’s Rasamanjari was one of the most popular texts to be painted in the form of miniature paintings. In the western part of India, these are predominantly illustrated in various Jaina texts.

The Mughal Impact

The Mughals were considered to be famous connoisseurs of art and emperors such as Akbar, Jahangir as well as Shah Jahan were known to patronize highly skilled painters of those times who illustrated various manuscripts containing historical records and poetry. These were characterized by their use of bold colours and their portrayal of various aspects of social life as well as scenes from court or battlefield. Sometimes, they even vividly portrayed scenes of hunting.

When the Mughal empire started to decline many painters were forced to move out to the courts to other emerging regional states. They carried with them their Mughal artistic influence to the regional courts of the Deccan and the Rajput courts of Rajasthan. In spite of this, they still retained their distinctive features. Consequently, the portraits of rulers and court scenes came to be painted.

Apart from these, regions in such Mewar, Jodhpur, Bundi, Kota as well Kishangarh, depictions of mythology and poetry were also observed in the paintings. These paintings were often exchanged as gifts and were viewed only by an exclusive few which included the emperor and his close associates These paintings were often viewed as a rare commodity and when exchanged as gifts and were allowed to be viewed only by the emperor, his close associates and an exclusive few.

Nadir Shah’s Impact

Nadir Shah’s invaded the plains of Delhi in 1739. Fearing uncertain times, a lot of Mughal artists moved to the hills where they found many ready patrons of their art. Thus the Kangra school of painting was born. The Kangra artists developed a style by the mid-eighteenth century which breathed a new spirit into miniature painting. Inspired by the Vaishnavite traditions, these paintings had many prominent features such as the inclusion of soft colours like cool blues and greens as well as a lyrical treatment of the theme.

Art was not just restricted just too famous artists. Even ordinary men and women painted using walls, pots, floors, and cloth as their canvas. Sadly only a few of the paintings stood the tests of time as opposed to the miniatures which were carefully preserved in the courts.

Example:

Question:
Which of these styles of paintings were characterized by the inclusion of soft colours as well as a lyrical treatment of the theme?
a. Basohli
b. Warli
c. Kangra
d. Rasamanjari
Answer:
The correct answer is option c. Kangra.
These paintings were characterized by the use of soft colours like cool blue or cool green as well as a lyrical treatment of the theme.

The compilation of these The Making of Regional Cultures Notes makes students exam preparation simpler and organised.

Beyond Regional Frontiers: The Story of Kathak

The term Kathak is derived from the Vedic Sanskrit word Katha which means “story”, and Kathaka which means “the one who tells a story”, or “to do with stories”. One of the major Indian classical dance forms, its origin is traditionally attributed to the travelling bards of ancient northern India known as Kathakars or storytellers.

Thus Kathak is not merely dance but an expression of a story. How beautiful! Let us explore more about this enchanting dance form as well as its origin and significance in regional cultures.

Origin of Kathak

Presumably, originating in Banaras or Varanasi it spread its wings to other parts such as Jaipur, Lucknow as well as many other regions of the north and northwest India. This dance form has been heavily inspired by the heroic traditions of various regions. The dance form was an integration of basic gestures of storytellers with traditional folk dance.

Association with Bhakti Movement
The Lucknow Gharana is a form of Kathak founded by Ishwari Prasad, a devotee of the Bhakti movement. It has a peculiar story behind its origin. A resident of Handiya village towards the southeast Uttar Pradesh, it is believed that Lord Krishna appeared in his dreams and instructed him to develop “dance as a form of worship”. Subsequently, the dance form was taught by him to his sons which were then passed down to their descendants.

This tradition continued for more than six generations thus carrying forward this rich legacy. It came to be acknowledged as the Lucknow Gharana of Kathak by Indian literature. It took its inspiration from the legends of Lord Krishna and his eternal love Radha depicted in texts like the ‘Bhagavata Purana’. The stories of Radha and Krishna were beautifully captured and depicted in folk plays known as “rasalila” which were performed by Kathak artists.

The Mughal Influence
Kathak was popularly performed in Mughal courts as well where it was seen more as a sensuous dance form. Even the costumes of the performers were different. The stories that were depicted were not based on the legends of Krishna and Radha but rather assumed a more erotic theme. Kathak developed both Hindu as well as Muslim Gharanas simultaneously.

Revival of Kathak
As the Indian freedom movement progressed in the early 20th century, it witnessed efforts being undertaken amongst Indians in order to revive national culture and tradition and rediscover the rich history of India in order to resurrect the very essence of the nation. Kalkaprasad Maharaj played a significant role in drawing an international audience to Kathak at the beginning of the 20th century.

More About Kathak
As in the case of all major Indian Classical Dance forms, Kathak starts with the part where the performer offers an invocation to Hindu gods and goddesses through a series of hand gestures known as “mudras” as well as facial expressions. “Nritta” represents pure dance where the dancer initially performs a sequence involving elegant and slow movements of various body parts like eyebrows, neck as well as wrists following which she adjusts her speed according to the beats of the music.

Example:

Question:
The kathaks were originally a caste of _________ in temples of north India, who embellished their performances with gestures and songs.
a. Sculptors
b. Story-tellers
c. Gatekeepers
d. Carpenters
Answer:
The correct option is b. Storytellers.

The compilation of these The Making of Regional Cultures Notes makes students exam preparation simpler and organised.

A Closer Look: Bengal

This independent regional empire has played a major role in History. The leading power in Southeast Asia with extensive trade networks has a rich cultural heritage. The literature of Bengal is known for its rich compositions and epics. Let us know about the emergence of Bengal, its language, and literature.

Emergence of Bengal

The fourth-third century BC resulted in the development of commercial ties between Bengal and Magadha (South Bihar). Since Sanskrit was the predominant language spoken in Magadh, these ties resulted in a strong influence of Sanskrit over the local languages spoken there.

The Gupta rulers established political control over north Bengal thus resulting in a strong cultural influence of the mid-Ganga valley. As observed by the Chinese traveller Xuan Zang that the 7th century witnessed the widespread use of languages related to Sanskrit in Bengal. From the Eight century under the Pala rule, Bengal became the centre of a regional kingdom.

During the period between the fourteenth and the sixteenth century, the Sultans began to rule Bengal. Subsequently, Akbar conquered it in 1586, which led to the use of Persian as an administrative language. While Persian still remained the official language Bengali became the regional language.

Bengali – The Language of Bengal

The end of the 15th century witnessed the union of the group of Bengali dialects resulting in the formation of a common literary language which was initially the spoken language of the region towards the western part of Bengal, now known as West Bengal. Though Sanskrit was the base from which Bengali developed, it has evolved a lot. Thus the modern-day Bengali is a blend of some Sanskrit as well as many non-Sanskrit words. These words have their source of origin in the tribal languages of Persian as well as Europe.

The Rich Literature of Bengal

For the study of early Bengali literature, it is imperative to study it under two heads:

• The literature influenced by Sanskrit
• The independent Bengali literature

The Literature Influenced by Sanskrit

Sanskrit epics, such as the Mangalakavyas as well as the Bhakti literature which included the biographies of Chaitanyadeva who spearheaded the Vaishnava Bhakti movement were translated into Bengali. These were indicated to be dating to the later half of the 15th as well as mid 18th century.

The Independent Bengali Literature
Apart from the transliteration of Sanskrit epics, Bengali literature is rich in many folk tales, fairy tales, stories concerning the worship of Dharma Thakur. These enjoyed particular popularity in the eastern parts of Bengal and were mainly circulated orally and thus it is difficult to date them precisely.

The Nath Literature

The Nath cult or yoga-sadhana serves as the basis of this Medieval branch of Bangala literature. Adinath, popularly known as the great Lord Shiva is the main God of the Nath cult. The Nath literature was mainly divided into two types, didactic and narrative. Didactic literature was peculiar in the sense the Doha, prahelika as well as chara used, were rich in the use of code words and sentences. The doshas are included in collections such as Goraksa-Sanghita and Yoga Chintamani as well as works of Goraksanath’s compositions. These were mainly oral (narrative)

Example:

Question:
Which of these styles of Bengali Literature was rich in the use of code words and sentences?
a. Nath Literature
b. Bhakti Literature
c. Mangalkavyas
d. Sangam Literature
Answer:
The correct answer is “a”.
Nath Literature was the style of Bengali Literature rich in the use of code words and sentences.

The compilation of these History Notes makes students exam preparation simpler and organised.

The Making of Regional Cultures

Where do you come from? What’s your mother tongue? India is a country of diverse people. No other country in the world has as many languages as we do. Even though Hindi is our national language, everyone’s mother tongue is different. When did India become so diversified? How did different regions come into the scene? Let’s have a closer look at the making of these regional cultures.

• A Closer Look: Bengal
• Beyond Regional Frontiers: The Story of Kathak
• Paintings for Patrons: The Tradition of Miniatures
• Regional Cultures

The compilation of these The Making of a Global World Notes makes students exam preparation simpler and organised.

The Making of a Global World: World War and the Great Depression

There were two main events that highlighted the Twentieth century as one of struggle and chaos. The first defining event was the first world war, and then immediately after came the great depression of 1929. Both these events have shaped our modern history. Let us take a detailed look.

Changes during the World War

The First World War was fought between 1914 and 1918, primarily in Europe. During this period, many economic and political changes occurred around the global world. The first modern industrial war, World War I, saw a large-scale use of machine guns, tanks, aircraft, chemical weapons, etc. – industrial arms. The war was fought between the following two blocs:

• Allies – Britain, France, and Russia (the US joined later)
• Central Powers – Germany, Austria-Hungary and Ottoman Turkey

This war left around 9 million dead and 20 million injured. Most of these deaths and/or injured were able-bodied men of the working-age group. Post-war, the number of working members in most households reduced, leading to a sharp decline in income.

A restructure of industries followed to accommodate the increased demand for war-related goods. Also, women began stepping out and taking up jobs that only men did earlier. The war needed a steady source of capital as well. The major powers battling against each other created newer ties. For e.g. Britain started borrowing capital from the US and soon the US became an international creditor.

Recovering from the World War
Britain had a tough time recovering from the First World War for many reasons:

While Britain was at war, countries like India and Japan developed industries. Post-war Britain could not re-capture the Indian market or compete with Japan on a global level.

The capital borrowed by Britain during the war led to a huge external debt which needed to be repaid.

During the war, there was a surge in employment due to the increased demand for war-related goods. Post-war, as these demands decreased, many people were rendered jobless. In 1921, one out of every five British workers was unemployed.

Pre-war, Eastern Europe supplied wheat to most of the global world. During the war, Canada, Australia, and America stepped up their wheat production. This was because the supply was disrupted in Europe. Post-war, once Europe started producing wheat again, they created a glut in the wheat market leading to a drop in prices and subsequent decrease in rural income.

The US Boom
Mass production helped the US recover from the post-war economic crisis. Henry Ford, a leading car manufacturer, was the pioneer of mass production. He observed the assembly line used in slaughterhouses in Chicago. The slaughtered animals were picked apart as they came down a conveyor belt. Eventually, he devised a cheaper and faster way of producing vehicles using the conveyor belt method.

In this method, the speed of the conveyor belt determined the speed of production. Workers could not take untimed breaks or indulge in friendly chats. The stress of the pace of work led to mass resignations. Ford then doubled the daily wage and banned trade unions from his organization. Now he could ask his workers to work harder and since he paid them to double the wages. Soon, this method was copied by other companies across the US and Europe.

The increased wages also led to a subsequent increase in the purchase of durable consumer goods, like cars, refrigerators, washing machines, radios, gramophone players, etc. A system of ‘hire-purchase’ or installment-purchase as is known today, helped people acquire these goods sooner. These purchases were also fuelled by the housing boom in the US, which was also financed by loans.

This cycle of higher employment and incomes, rising consumer demand, more investment, and even more employment and incomes, contributed to the economic boom of the US. Soon the US became the largest international lender.

The Great Depression of 1929

In 1929, the global world experienced sharp declines in employment, production, trade, and incomes. While all industries were impacted, the agricultural sector was the most affected. The post-war global world economy was already crumbling and these factors pushed it towards an economic depression:

Agricultural overproduction – Post-war, overproduction of crops was already a problem. The falling prices worsened it further. So, with falling prices and decreasing incomes, farmers tried increasing production to maintain their income. However, this led to a worsened glut in the market and a further drop in prices.

Withdrawal of loans by the US – By mid-1928, the US had over $ 1 billion in overseas loans. Over the next year, these loans were reduced to around 25% of that amount. This led to an economic crisis in countries that depended on the US for loans. For e.g. in Europe, some banks collapsed and the currency de-valued while in Latin America the prices of agricultural products and raw materials slumped further.

The depression adversely affected the US too. Banks started reducing domestic lending, called back loans, harvests remained un-sold and businesses collapsed. The people who could not repay their loans had to forfeit their cars/ homes. Subsequently, people started migrating to places where they could find employment. The US banking system collapsed and many banks went bankrupt.

The Great Depression and India
In the global world, a crisis in one country affected all the other countries. Pre-depression, India exported agricultural products and imported manufactured goods. During the depression, the imports and exports took a huge hit. The wheat prices fell by around 50%.

It hit our agricultural sector the hardest. The jute farmers suffered as prices dropped by around 60%. Overall, the farmers and peasants faced increasing loans, reducing savings, and mortgaged lands. Subsequently, they started selling gold, jewelry and other precious metals to meet their expenses. Soon India became an exporter of gold which helped the global world in recovering from this depression. However, the farmers and peasants were still suffering.

On the other hand, people living in urban areas were much better off. With fixed sources of income and prices going down, they could afford more for a lesser amount of money.

The Post War Period

Around two decades after the end of the First World War, the Second World War broke out. Fought between the Axis powers of Nazi Germany, Japan, and Italy and the Allies Britain, France, Soviet Union and the US, it went on for around six years.

Around 60 million people or 3% of the world’s population died. This war caused more civilian deaths than soldiers. Economic and social disruption was immense. The US and Soviet Union emerged as superpowers post this war.

Lessons Learned from the World War
The economist and world leaders learned two strong lessons from this war:

The Government must ensure the economic stability of a nation. This can lead to stable employment for people thereby ensuring a stable income. And, this would eventually increase mass consumption further boosting an industrial society based on mass production.

The government should have complete control over the flow of goods, labour, and capital to be able to ensure the full employment of its people.

In July 1944, the United Nation’s Monetary and Financial Conference was held in Bretton Woods in New Hampshire, USA. This conference established the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank).

• IMF – dealt with deficits and surpluses of its member nations
• World Bank-financed post-war reconstruction

These two institutions started operations in 1947 with decision-making powers resting with the western industrial powers and the US having an effective right of veto. In the Bretton Woods system, all national currencies were pegged to the dollar at a fixed rate of exchange. However, the dollar was at a fixed price of $35 per ounce of gold.

Early Post-War Years
The Bretton Woods system helped the global world recover from the economic crisis of the war and brought trade to the Western countries and Japan. The technology was spreading and developing countries were trying to catch up with the other advanced countries. This period saw huge imports of industrial plants and equipment based on modern technology.

Decolonization
The Post-war period also saw a lot of colonies in Asia and Africa emerge as independent countries. However, they were poverty-stricken due to long periods of colonial rule. Once Britain and Japan rebuilt their economies, the IMF and World Bank shifted their focus to these former colonies. International agencies stepped in to help these countries lift their populations out of poverty.

However, these agencies were controlled by former colonial powers and they still had a stake in the vital resources of the former colonies. Also, large corporations of powerful countries like the US managed to secure rights to exploit the natural resources of the developing countries at cheap prices.

Soon the developing countries realized that they were not benefitting from the exponential growth of the western economies. Hence, they created a group – G-77 and demanded a New International Economic Order (NIEO). They demanded for a system wherein they could control their natural resources and have better access to the markets in developed countries for their manufactured goods.

Beginning of Globalization
Post the 1960s, the US dollar failed to maintain its value in relation to gold and ceased to be the world’s principal currency. The fixed exchange rate system got abolished and a new floating exchange rate system was introduced.

Earlier, countries would borrow funds from international institutions. However, post-1970s, they were forced to borrow from Western commercial banks. This led to a debt crisis in Africa and Latin America. Unemployment was also very high between the 1970s and early 1990s. This was because companies had started moving their production operations to low-wage Asian countries.

Since the revolution in 1949, China was cut off from the post-war world economy. However, with new economic policies, China was soon back in the fold. Due to the low wages in China, it soon became a preferred destination for MNC investments.

Examples:

Question 1.
The First World War was fought between which two groups?
Answer:
The First World War was fought between:

• Allies – Britain, France, and Russia (the US joined later)
• Central Powers – Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Ottoman Turkey

Question 2.
What were the two major reasons behind the Great Depression of 1929?
Answer:
Overproduction of agricultural products and withdrawal of international loans by the US were the two major reasons behind the Great Depression of 1929.

The compilation of these The Making of a Global World Notes makes students exam preparation simpler and organised.

The Making of a Global World: Till the Nineteenth Century

The internet has connected the world in this millennium. However, have you wondered how life was hundreds of years ago? All through history, people have been interlinked for different reasons. Let us learn about the developments during the pre-modern world and the nineteenth century.

The Pre-Modern World

Before the nineteenth century, travellers, traders, religious torch-bearers, and many other people travelled across countries and continents for knowledge, opportunities, and various other reasons. Let’s look at three things that help us understand the making of a global world in pre-modern times:

• Silk Route
• Food Travels
• Diseases and Trade

Silk Routes

Known to have existed even before the Christian era and survived till almost the fifteenth century, the Silk Routes connected Asia with Europe, Africa, and the rest of the world. Historians have identified several silk routes over land and sea. The name Silk Route comes from the west-bound Chinese silk cargoes along these routes.

These routes were used for trade along with an exchange of art, literature, and philosophies. Many religious preachers also used these routes to spread their beliefs.

Food Travels – Spaghetti and Potato
Food is another way to understand how a global world existed in pre-modern times since traders or travellers introduced a new food to the place they visited. Five centuries ago, Indians were not aware of potatoes, soya, groundnuts, maize, tomatoes, chilies, and sweet potatoes. These foods were introduced to Europe and Asia only after Christopher Columbus discovered the Americas.

Another example is noodles or spaghetti. Many historians believe that noodles ravelled from China to Europe and became spaghetti. Also, it is believed that Arab traders introduced pasta to Sicily (an island ton in Italy). Maybe the origins of these foods were in India or Japan, a fact that is difficult to determine. However, this points to the fact that there was long-distance cultural contact between people in the pre-modern world.

Diseases and Trade
In the sixteenth century, European traders found a sea route to Asia and an ocean route to the Americas. Peru and Mexico, in South America, were full of mines with precious metals like silver which helped Europe finance its trade with Asia. Many legends got spread about the South American wealth due to the presence of these precious metals. Eventually, the Portuguese and Spaniards colonized the Americas by the mid-sixteenth century.

Interestingly, the Spanish conquerors didn’t use any guns or any conventional military weapon to conquer the South American settlements. They used Biological Warfare! Until the nineteenth century, hunger and poverty were common in Europe. Deadly diseases, like smallpox, were widespread too.

The Americas, on the other hand, had no immunity to these diseases since they had lived in isolation for long while the Spanish were mostly immune. When they would go to conquer a land, they would carry the germs of such diseases on themselves and introduce them to the Americas. The diseases would then spread and claim lives thus paving an easy way for conquest.

Also, China and India were among the world’s richest countries till the mid-eighteenth century. This was primarily due to Asia being the center of trade and commerce. However, China slowly reduced its international contacts and retreated into isolation. Also, the Americas were rising in importance. This led to a shift of trade and Europe became the center of world trade.

The Nineteenth Century

In the nineteenth century, three types of flow existed within international economic exchanges. They were:

• Trade flow
• Labour flow
• Capital flow

Let’s understand the nineteenth-century global world by looking at all these flows simultaneously.

Formation of a World Economy
From the late eighteenth century, Britain experienced a growth in population and subsequent demand for food grains. This led to an increase in prices. Corn Laws were prevalent in Britain which led to a restricted import of corn. Eventually, under pressure from the industrialists and local people, the Corn Laws were abolished.

This led to a cheaper import of food into Britain – much cheaper than the cost of production within the country itself. Hence, vast areas of land were left uncultivated and the locals, who were earlier employed in agriculture, flocked to cities for employment opportunities. Also, a drop in food prices led to an increase in consumption. Industries were growing at a rapid pace in Britain which led to higher income for the locals and higher consumption of food.

Eastern Europe, Russia, America, and Australia cleared their lands to grow food and export it to Britain. However, they also needed to construct railways to link these agricultural lands to the ports. They also needed to construct newer and bigger harbours to ship the new cargoes. Furthermore, people who would cultivate needed homes and settlements. All this required capital and labour.

Financial centers, like London, provided the capital while people from Europe and other countries moved to countries like the Americas and Australia where the demand for labour was high, in search of a better future. Hence, by the end of the nineteenth century, a global agricultural economy had developed. This was accompanied by complex labour patterns, capital flows, ecologies, and technologies.

Apart from food grains, the production of other products like cotton, rubber, etc. also flourished due to demands in the British market.

Significance of Technology
Shipment of edible and perishable products from one country to another requires fast transportation. It also needs technological advancement for the delivery of fresh products. Technology ensured that the trains were faster, wagons were lighter and ships were larger to accommodate the increasing demands.

Further, meat was an expensive luxury in Britain since live animals were shipped from America and Australia to Europe and then slaughtered on arrival. However, live animals took up a lot of space and many fell ill during the journey rendering their meat inedible. This invariably led to an increase in meat prices in Britain.

Eventually, technology stepped in which led to the invention of refrigerated ships. Now, transport of perishable food products was possible without worries. Animals were now slaughtered at the source and their meat was transported to Europe. This reduced shipping costs and a subsequent drop in meat prices in Britain.

Colonialism in the Late Nineteenth Century
Late nineteenth-century also saw large-scale colonization by the British, French, Spanish, Portuguese, German and other European powers. These countries were colonizing most regions in Asia and Africa as a part of the expansion of trade and relations. One belief they held was that their way of living life and their society was far more civilized and that all must follow in their footsteps.

Cattle Plague or Rinderpest
During the late nineteenth century, many Europeans came to Africa to establish plantations and mines. However, there were very few Africans willing to work for a wage. They were happy rearing cattle and farming for their own food.

In the late 1880s, Rinderpest – a devastating cattle plague hit Africa. It spread all across the continent within five years and killed around 90% of the cattle. Infected cattle imported from British Asia to feed the Italian soldiers invading Eritrea in East Africa carried the infection. This plague destroyed the livelihood of most Africans. Plantation/Mine owners and Colonial governments controlled whatever little was left of the natural resources and forced Africans into the labour market.

Indentured Labor Migration from India
Also in the nineteenth century, thousands of Indian labourers went to work in plantations, mines, and other construction projects around the world. This was because cottage industries had declined and land rents had risen. People in the rural areas were finding it difficult to manage their expenses. All these labourers needed to sign contracts. According to these contracts, only when they completed five years of service could they travel to India.

On reaching there, the living conditions were not as promised; on the contrary, they were very harsh with little/ no legal rights. While some of them escaped into the jungles, a few stayed back and adapted to the new culture leading to a fusion of cultures.

Indian Entrepreneurs
During this period small peasants needed capital to grow food for the global world. This is where the Indian entrepreneurs and bankers like the Shikaripuri Shroffs and Nattukottai Chettiars stepped in. They financed export agriculture in Central and Southeast Asia by using their own funds or using funds borrowed from European banks.

Indian Trade
Britain was going through an Industrial Revolution and while they were importing cotton from India, the local cotton manufacturing in Britain also started growing. Eventually, they started exporting cotton and the Indian exports declined from 30% in around the 1800s to 3% in the 1870s. India then started exporting raw materials to make up for the decreased exports.

Over the years, Britain started exporting certain products to India and importing some other products. However, the value of British exports to India was much higher than the value of British imports from India. Thus Britain had a ‘trade surplus with India. Britain used this surplus to balance its trade deficits with other countries – that is, with countries from which Britain was importing more than it was selling. This system is the ‘Multilateral Settlement System’.

Example:

Question 1.
Which three things help us understand the making of a global world?
Answer:
The Silk routes, travel of food across countries and continents, and diseases and trade help us understand the making of a global world.

Question 2.
What was Rinderpest?
Answer:
Rinderpest was a cattle plague that hit Africa in the late 1880s. It killed over 90% of the cattle within five years.

The compilation of these History Notes makes students exam preparation simpler and organised.

The Making of a Global World

We live in a very connected world. Anyone you want to reach, anywhere in the world, is just a click away. But was this always the case with mankind? Yes, even when we did not have the means we do today, man always made attempts to explore the world and form connections. Let us see how we developed towards this global world.

• The Making of a Global World: Till the Nineteenth Century
• The Making of a Global World: World War and the Great Depression

The compilation of these The Sultans of Delhi Notes makes students exam preparation simpler and organised.

The Delhi Sultanate

The transformation of Delhi as capital had started way before 1931. This transformation came into action after the Delhi Sultanate. But what was the Delhi Sultanate? Who all were the part of this Sultanate? Let us travel back in time and find out more about the Delhi Sultanate.

The Beginning of The Delhi Sultanate

The Delhi Sultanate was a major Muslim sultanate from the 13th to the 16th century in India. It began with the campaigns of Muʿizz al-Din Muḥammad ibn Sam (Muhammad of Ghur; brother of Sultan Ghiyas al-Din of Ghur) and his lieutenant Qutb al-Din Aibak primarily between 1175 and 1206.

It was the victory against the Rajputs that began the established reign of the Delhi Sultanate.

Until the end of the 12th century, it was Prithviraj Chauhan who ruled on the Indian land. During his reign, Prithviraj Chauhan fought many battles out of which both the battles of Tarain fought in the late 12th century were crucial. In both battles, he fought Muhammad of Ghur of the Ghuride dynasty of Afghanistan.

In the first battle of Tarain between Muhammad of Ghur and Prithviraj Chauhan and other Indian rulers that was fought in 1191 A.D, Muhammad of Ghur faced a harsh defeat and had to retreat. And in the second battle that was fought in 1192 A.D., he returned and fought with more reinforcements and a stronger army with an intention to defeat the Rajputs and succeeded in doing so. This defeat ended the Rajputs’ supremacy in north India and gave way for Turkish emperors to establish themselves in the sub-continent.

The Administration of the Delhi Sultanate

The Delhi Sultanate was administrated and governed as per the laws stated in the holy Quran. This Quranic law was the supreme law of the empire. The Caliph was the supreme leader according to the Islamic theory. And all the Muslim rulers in the world were to be his subordinates.

Sultan – The head of the Sultanate
The head of the administration of the Sultanate was the king or the Sultan himself. The Sultan was embodied with all the powers in his will and his will would be the law of the country. Since there was no principle of hereditary succession the Sultan had the power to nominate the heirs of his choice and they would be recognized by all other nobles.

All the Muslims were allowed in the Sultan’s office but that was only theoretically, in reality, the Sultanate was open only for the immigrant Turkes. In the later period, the Sultanate became even more restricted allowing only the members of the royal family.

Following the Islamic theory, the Sultans of Delhi was considered to be the messengers of Allah, i.e. God and it was their duty to enforce the laws stated in the Holy Quran.

Wazir or The Prime Minister
The Wazir exercised the Sultan’s power and rules and regulations laid down by him. The Wazir appointed all the important officers of the state under the name of the Sultan. In the absence of the Sultan, it’s the Wazir who took care of everything.

He advised the Sultan in matters of administration and always kept him updated about the sentiments and needs of his people. The Wazir handled all the financial matters; he was also the superintendent of the civil servants and commanded the military establishment. All the requirements of the army were to go through him.

The Army Master or Diwan-i-Ariz
Diwan-i-Ariz controlled the military establishment. Diwan-i-Ariz recruited the troops for the army. The Sultan was the commander-in-chief of the army. He mostly looked after the discipline of the army and their equipment and their requirements on the battlefield that were then informed to the Wazir.

The minister for foreign affairs or Diwan-i-risalt
He was the minister responsible for the foreign affairs and handled the diplomatic correspondences, the ambassadors, and the envoys received from the other rulers.

Minister of the department of religions or Sadr-us-Sudur
The Sadr-us-Sudur was the minister who handled the religious department, endowment, and charity. He was to enforce the Islamic rules and regulations and it was his duty to ensure that all Muslims strictly followed these rules and regulations.

Sources of the Delhi Sultanate
The important sources of information available about the Delhi Sultanate are:

• Inscriptions: They are found on old coins, historical monuments, milestones, and tombstones.
• Monuments: The Sultans of Delhi built many monuments that reveal not only the cultural traditions of that period but also the living conditions, faiths and beliefs, and the socio-cultural outlook of the rulers. One such monument is the Qutub Minar.

Invasion of Muhammad Ghori
Muhammad of Ghur after winning the second battle of Tarain with Prithviraj Chauhan started his exploitation in India. However, soon after that, he returned to his kingdom and left his trusted lieutenant and former slave Qutbuddin Aybak behind to rule on his behalf. These marked the beginnings of the Slave or the Mamluk dynasty in north India.

Slave Dynasty

Qutubuddin Aibak, born as a slave in then Turkistan and as he grew up he became the trusted lieutenant of Muhammad Ghur; is regarded as the founder and the first ruler of the slave dynasty or then called as the ‘Mamluk Dynasty. It was Qutub-ud-din Aibak who laid the foundation for Qutub Minar in Delhi which was finished by Iltutmish. However, under his reign, there were no major territorial expansions of the dynasty under his rule.

Khiliji Dynasty

Jalaluddin Khilji was the founder and the first ruler of the Khilji dynasty, after the Slave dynasty. He got the throne of the Khilji dynasty after killing Kaikubad, the last ruler of the Slave dynasty. Jalaluddin Khalji was a nobleman of Turkish origins who had settled in Afghanistan. The Delhi Sultanate rapidly expanded under the Khalji dynasty.

Tughluq Dynasty
The Tughluq dynasty was established by Ghiyasuddin Tughluq who expanded his kingdom after the Khalji dynasty collapsed. Muhammad bin Tughluq and Feroze Tughluq were the well-known rulers among the Tughluqs. However, Muhammad bin Tughluq was considered a prominent ruler who was scholarly and well-read in many subjects.

He had also mastered mathematics, astronomy, logic, and physical sciences. He enjoyed Persian literature, music, fine arts, and calligraphy. After his death, the Sultanate grew very weak and eventually collapsed.

Sayyed Dynasty
The Tughluq dynasty had come to an end by the 14th century due to the invasion by the Turkish ruler Timur. However, Timur soon left and when he left, a local governor of Multan named Khizr Khan replaced him and announced himself as the ruler of Delhi and established the Sayyid dynasty.

Example:

Question:
Mohammad Ghori invaded the provinces of Sindh and ___________
a. Punjab
b. Jammu and Kashmir
c. Rajasthan
d. Uttar Pradesh
Answer:
a. Punjab.
During the last quarter of the 12th century Mohammed Ghori, who was ruling a kingdom in Afghanistan, invaded India and secured the provinces of Sindh and Punjab. When he made further advances into Indian territories, Prithviraj Chauhan, the king of Delhi and Ajmer, routed him in a battle. However, Mohammad was spared from the death penalty.

The very next year Mohammad came to India and fought with Prithviraj and defeated him. Mohammad gave orders to kill him. Delhi came under the control of Mohammad Ghori. Before returning to Afghanistan he transferred the conquered territories to his general by the name Qutubuddin Aibak. Aibak started ruling as the sultan of Delhi.